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Globalisation, Economic Citizenship, and India’s Inclusive Developementalism

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Citizenship as Cultural Flow

Abstract

Harriss-White, Mishra, and Prakash argue that citizenship is a universal concept that might have a tenuous bearing on reality. There is no consensus about the concept of economic citizenship, which, they suggest is currently being exported from the European heartland to developing countries in private aid-driven projects of social entrepreneurship. It is replete with tensions. Unlike the concept of political citizenship, economic citizenship is not a concept of formal equality. Hariss-White et al. analyze the role of the state, markets and civil society in furthering the project with a range of proxy labels which de facto advances economic citizenship. Through a case study of Arunachal they show the role of a non-state, non-market institution—ethnicity—in structuring and differentiating economic citizenship.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Early versions of parts of this paper have been presented at the South Asia Institute, Heidelberg, 2008, the FICCI-Said Business School Conference on Globalisation and Developing Economies: Concerns of Social Inclusion, Oxford University, 2008; the inauguration of the “India in the World Centre,” Liverpool University, 2008; and the Cambridge University Centre for Research in the Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities (CRASSH) international workshop “Experiencing the State,” 2009. To everyone who has engaged with it, especially to Binda Sahni, Subrata Mitra, Prasanna Nayak, James Manor, Marcus Pohlmann and Marie Lall, we are very grateful. Marshall, and Bottomore 1950. See Schoettli in this volume for the parallel evolution of similar ideas by Nehru.

  2. 2.

    For Beveridge, these were hunger, sickness, ignorance, squalor (lack of shelter and sanitation), and unemployment.

  3. 3.

    See the discussion in Kymlicka and Norman (1994).

  4. 4.

    Chatterjee (2008). See Economic and Political Weekly 18 November 2008 for several critical rejoinders.

  5. 5.

    For the former view see Altvater (1993), for the latter statistics see Harriss-White (2003).

  6. 6.

    The focus of citizenship remains male biased.

  7. 7.

    White (2002).

  8. 8.

    Kymlicka and Norman (1994).

  9. 9.

    Ghose (2008).

  10. 10.

    Sahni (2009), Jayal (forthcoming). See Spiess here. See also Harriss-White (2005) on the joint production and criminalisation of destitution by both state and society.

  11. 11.

    See Mitra, Manor, Spiess and Pfetsch in this volume.

  12. 12.

    Kymlicka and Norman (1994).

  13. 13.

    There has been a resurgence of recent interest in the process of land seizure: contemporary manifestations of the process of “primitive accumulation” that has actually been ongoing in India since the nineteenth century (see Chatterjee 2008; Khan 2004).

  14. 14.

    Khan (2004).

  15. 15.

    McDonough (2007), Harriss-White (2003).

  16. 16.

    See James O’Connor (1998), Panayotakis (2007).

  17. 17.

    It requires the creation of mechanisms to ensure obligation, to claim rights, to claim redress for non-provision, to adjudicate claims and enforce the results of that adjudication (see Alston 1994, for the context of the right to food).

  18. 18.

    Kymlicka and Norman (1994), p. 394.

  19. 19.

    See Manor in this volume.

  20. 20.

    Prakash and Harriss-White (2009).

  21. 21.

    See Schoettli in this volume.

  22. 22.

    Let alone fair and equal outcomes. See Harriss-White (2003, 2007), Prakash and Harriss-White 2009.

  23. 23.

    Kaviraj (1985), Harriss-White (2008), Fernandez (2008).

  24. 24.

    Not only is over 40 % of the Indian economy black, but also at least 5 % disappears each year in capital flight mainly through the over invoicing of exports and under invoicing of imports at a huge opportunity cost (Kumar 1999; Srinivasan 2007).

  25. 25.

    Roy (1996), used what remains the latest available data to reveal that the leakages from the state due to corruption are one twentieth those due to tax evasion. Tax revenues are at the time of writing (2010) growing more slowly than GDP. While the tax base is increasing, excise duty and corporation tax have fallen short of the 2009–2010 budget target (Mukherjee 2010).

  26. 26.

    As confidently predicted by social theorists such as Weber, Myrdal, and the founding fathers of modern Indian sociology (for example Madan and Srinivas) see Harriss-White 2003.

  27. 27.

    Khan (2004), Prakash (2010), Sud (2007), Banik (2007).

  28. 28.

    See the summary of evidence in Sengupta et al. (2008).

  29. 29.

    Article 39 and 41 of the Indian Constitution.

  30. 30.

    SCs are 16 % of the Indian population and supply 29 % of all days of work in 2009; STs are 8 % and perform 25 % of work-days; women are 32 % of the labour force but make up 48 % of the workforce on the NREG programme (Reddy and Upendranath 2009: 7–10).

  31. 31.

    The average is 48/100 days (Reddy and Upendranath 2009).

  32. 32.

    Harriss-White (2003), Wolf (2007).

  33. 33.

    Gooptu and Harriss-White (2001).

  34. 34.

    Da Corta and Venkateshwarlu (1999).

  35. 35.

    Kapadia (2010), Heyer (2010), Lerche (2007), Shariff (2006), Thorat 1998.

  36. 36.

    Cadene and Holmstrom (1999), Roman (2008), Ruthven (2008).

  37. 37.

    Basile (2009), Chibber (2003).

  38. 38.

    See for one example http://lalgarh.wordpress.com/2009/12/13/all-india-convention-against-sez-land-grabbing-displacement/ (last access: 20 May 2010).

  39. 39.

    Rajalakshmi (2008).

  40. 40.

    Zizek (2008).

  41. 41.

    Sarkar (2009), Sahni 2009).

  42. 42.

    Baruah (2008).

  43. 43.

    Kar (2008) in Baruah (2008).

  44. 44.

    Govt of Arunachal Pradesh (2005), Salam 2007.

  45. 45.

    Sahni (2009).

  46. 46.

    Harriss-White et al. (2009).

  47. 47.

    Baruah (2008):16.

  48. 48.

    The Inner Line is as much a colonial artefact as the classification of hills and plains tribes. It was originally established in 1873 and has since been challenged.

  49. 49.

    Jim Scott 2000 (in Baruah 2008: 17).

  50. 50.

    Harriss-White et al. (2009).

  51. 51.

    See Harriss-White et al. 2009 for evidence of the state’s denial of private property.

  52. 52.

    Sahni (2009).

  53. 53.

    Harriss-White (2002).

  54. 54.

    What Benedict Anderson has called the “imagined community.”

  55. 55.

    Held (1995).

  56. 56.

    van Steenbergen (1996).

  57. 57.

    E.g. the European Union or the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

  58. 58.

    Parekh (1997).

  59. 59.

    Sengupta et al. (2008), NCEUS (2008).

  60. 60.

    Seventy percent NRIs in the Gulf region are semi- or unskilled labour—men in construction and women in domestic service, neither of which sectors have any political clout.

  61. 61.

    In medicine, engineering, law, finance, as well as information technology.

  62. 62.

    These migrants interact with the domestic Indian economy through remittances (the greatest are from the Gulf not from the two million carefully screened entrants to the United States (Pattanaik 2007). North American NRIs have political clout in their destination country and active promotion in India.

  63. 63.

    See Kim 2008, on India’s protection of domestic capital in the liquor sector.

  64. 64.

    See Sahni (2009).

  65. 65.

    And like so many low status economic organisations within India (Basile 2009).

  66. 66.

    See Jaffrelot (1999).

  67. 67.

    See Fernandez 2008, for the technologies of bureaucratic power which account for such paradoxes. In the budgets for 2008–2010 allocations for “Inclusive Development” have all increased. In 2010, that for Minorities is planned at Rs 2.6 kcr; for the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment Rs 4.5kcr; pensions for the unorganised sector Rs 0.1 kcr; womens’ self-help groups Rs 0.4 kcr; social security for the unorganised sector Rs 1kcr; backward regions Rs 7.3kcr; rural and urban housing Rs 10 and 5.4kcr respectively; rural infrastructure Rs 48kcr; the NREGA Rs 40kcr; rural development Rs 66kcr; health Rs 22 kcr and education Rs 31 kcr. The social sector stood at 37 % of total plan expenditure of Rs 373kcr and rural infrastructure at 25 %. “Inclusive development is an act of faith” (P. Mukherjee 2010, para 72). But Indian growth continues to be polarising. Nearly 80 % of the population continues to live on less than USD 2 per day. According to Sengupta et al. (2008), while in 1993–1994 the poor were 732 m out of a total population of 894 m, 10 years later they were 836 m out of 1,090 m—a decline of only 5 % points. Among the poor 85 % of Muslims and 87 % of Scheduled Castes and Tribes live on under USD 2 per day.

  68. 68.

    BBC News: Thursday, 6 September, 2001, 08:35 GMT 09:35 UK Indian groups raise caste question.

  69. 69.

    For instance, a team of Conservative Party MPs prepared a report on discrimination against Dalits in India to be followed by a similar report from the Labour Party. See also the Dalit Solidarity Network UK. Dalit Watch UK holds regular meetings in Portcullis House, the annexe of the House of Commons, under the patronage of Labour MPs, mobilising public opinion to discrimination against Dalits in British companies investing in India.

  70. 70.

    See www.dgroups.org/groups/Reservation4dalits/docs/thorat.doc.

  71. 71.

    Although Nayak shows in this volume that tribal Orissan society had a notion of citizenship, it is not one of economic citizenship.

  72. 72.

    Even the NREGA, which has been interpreted as a right, provides a right to 100 days of work and has been implemented unevenly with under half the resources it needs, NCEUS 2008.

  73. 73.

    Mitra in this volume.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Barbara Harriss-White

  2. Senior Research Fellow at the Institute for Human Development, New Delhi, India

    Aseem Prakash

  3. Social Sciences, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

    Deepak Mishra

Authors
  1. Barbara Harriss-White
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  2. Aseem Prakash
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  3. Deepak Mishra
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Correspondence to Barbara Harriss-White .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. South Asia Institute, Heidelberg University, Im Neunheimer Feld 330, Heidelberg, 69120, Germany

    Subrata K. Mitra

Appendix : Institutions supporting economics of market and politics of democracy

Appendix : Institutions supporting economics of market and politics of democracy

Institutions supporting economics of markets

Institutions mandated by politics of democracy

Market creating

Market regulating institutions

Market legitimising institutions

Institutions giving a call for inclusive development

Watch dog institutions

Withdrawal of state

To attract new players

   

National Integration Council/National Judicial Council/National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions National Minority Commission National Commission for Backward Classes Act National Commission for Women Bifurcation of National Schedule Caste and National Schedule Tribe Commission

Foreign Direct Investment Policy 2006 (started with Industrial Policy of 1991)

Foreign Investment Implementation Authority (FIIA)

The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission

National Investment Fund

National Advisory Council (now defunct)

Board for Reconstruction of Public Sector Enterprise (Ministry of Disinvestment)

Committee on Infrastructure

The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India

National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector

Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies

The Fiscal Responsibility and the Budget Management Bill

Public Private Partnership

National Knowledge Commission

National Farmers Commission/Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness/Reconstituted National Rainfed Area Authority

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

Right to Education Bill

Proposed Equal Opportunity Commission and Diversity Index

National Rural health Mission

Proposed Food Security Act

Special Economic Zones (New Model of Industrialisation)

Investment Commission of India

Security Exchange Board of India

 

The Schedules Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forests Rights) Act, 2006

 

National Manufacturing Competitiveness and Investment Commission

Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority

 

Right to Information

 

Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission

Prime Minister Economic Advisory Council

 

National Urban Street Vendor Policy

 

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Harriss-White, B., Prakash, A., Mishra, D. (2013). Globalisation, Economic Citizenship, and India’s Inclusive Developementalism. In: Mitra, S. (eds) Citizenship as Cultural Flow. Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-34568-5_10

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