Abstract
In this chapter we introduce the methodology we follow as we design the user interface of the deductive spreadsheet. Because meeting the cognitive requirements of the user is paramount, we combine two recent proposals from cognitive science: the attention investment model takes an abstract view of the problem solving task by framing it in economic terms; in contrast, the cognitive dimension of notations proposes a number of criteria on which to evaluate individual design choices.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
This paper describes Forms/3, a conservative extension of the traditional spreadsheet with procedural abstractions such as recursion, data abstractions such as graphical values, and graphic time-based output. As it does so, it strives to maintain the usability characteristics that have made the spreadsheet popular with end-users.
- 2.
This paper describes uses of the attention investment model within the Forms/3 spreadsheet system [BAD + 01], finding it a useful design tool for the development of end-user programming features.
- 3.
This paper looks back at developments and applications of the cognitive dimensions of notation methodology in the ten years since it was first proposed. At the time it was written, it had become a fairly established methodology to assist the designers of notational systems, whether graphical or not, evaluate their design with respect to the impact they will have on users.
- 4.
This paper takes a critical look at the cognitive dimensions of notations methodology. It does not dispute its effectiveness but attempts a disciplined, scientific categorization of the original and subsequently proposed cognitive dimensions.
- 5.
This paper advocates the cognitive dimensions of notations framework as a device to helps designers build graphical user interfaces that with the desired cognitive properties. This practical study of the people tho design interfaces is in contrast with mainstream theoretical frameworks and user-centric approaches.
- 6.
This paper is concerned with the process of determining what new dimensions should be included in the cognitive dimensions of notation framework. It does so by recounting conversations with that method’s creator, Thomas Green, and explores ideas for developing a methodology for evaluating candidate dimensions.
- 7.
This is the original paper on the attention investment model. It focuses on the initial attitude of non-professional end-users when given tasks that have a programming component (e.g., writing spreadsheet formulas or programming a VCR). In particular, the attention investment model examines the first steps these users take and tries to understand their actions based on task and system at hand.
- 8.
This paper applies the cognitive dimensions of notation framework to the evaluation for visual programming environments, finding it particularly effective and a good complement for other techniques.
- 9.
This is the original paper on the cognitive dimension of notations. At the time, it focused not so much on graphical user interfaces but on interactive devices and programming notations.
- 10.
In the talk on which this extended abstract is based, Thomas Green discusses the reasons that led him to develop the cognitive dimensions of notation framework. This is a good first-person motivation of the origins of the methodology.
- 11.
In this talk, Thomas Green discusses the progress in visual programming environments as well as some limitations. At he does this, the explains how his cognitive dimensions of notations can benefit the design of such systems as well as some usability targets for such designs.
- 12.
This paper advocates a design methodology for graphical systems that is driven by concrete examples of tasks that users are expected to accomplish (problems) rather than abstract cognitive targets. This expands the space of design alternatives and acts as a benchmark to evaluate solutions.
- 13.
This is a classic textbook on practical approaches to engineering usability in software. It covers both cost-effective methods that will help developers improve their user interfaces and software engineering principles to reduce delays due to usability issues in a project.
- 14.
This collection of essays brings together the best approaches to predictive user modeling in use at the time, with special emphasis on various types of cognitive walkthrough. It reports on numerous case studies and gives practical guidance to developers interested in embedding usability inspection into the software cycle.
- 15.
This retrospective paper explores the advances of cognitive sciences and human-computer interaction technology since the proposals of the GOMS model. It also spells out the numerous shortcomings of methodologies of the time, for example their inability to account for things like user fatigue, individual differences, or mental workload. This is a very interesting read.
- 16.
This very influential article carried out a systematic study of the number and type of errors found in spreadsheets. At the outset, the results are surprisingly high, which should limit our confidence about decisions made on the basis of spreadsheet calculations. This research also finds that this type and number is similar to programming in general, except that software engineering has developed methods to curb this error rate, while spreadsheet users take a more informal approach.
- 17.
This paper proposes a method for extending the traditional spreadsheet with user-defined functions without the expectation that an everyday user will acquire the sophistication of an addon programmer. This work relies on cognitive psychology techniques such as the cognitive dimension of notations and the attention investment model to retain the usability that characterizes the traditional spreadsheet. This work was extremely influential in the development of the deductive spreadsheet.
- 18.
This paper proposes a streamlined variant of the cognitive walkthrough approach to usability analysis that mitigates some of the drawbacks of the original methodology observed in software companies.
Annotated Bibliography
Burnett, M., Atwood, J., Djang, R. W., Reichwein, J., Gottfried, H., & Yang, S. (2001). Forms/3: A first-order visual language to explore the boundaries of the spreadsheet paradigm. Journal of functional programming, 11(2), 155–206. Footnote
This paper describes Forms/3, a conservative extension of the traditional spreadsheet with procedural abstractions such as recursion, data abstractions such as graphical values, and graphic time-based output. As it does so, it strives to maintain the usability characteristics that have made the spreadsheet popular with end-users.
Blackwell, A., & Burnett, M. (2002). Applying attention investment to end-user-programming. In IEEE conference on human-centric computing languages and environments, Arlington (pp. 28–30). IEEE Computer Society. Footnote
This paper describes uses of the attention investment model within the Forms/3 spreadsheet system [BAD + 01], finding it a useful design tool for the development of end-user programming features.
Blackwell, A. F., Britton, C., Cox, A., Green, T. R. G., Gurr, C. A., Kadoda, G. F., Kutar, M., Loomes, M., Nehaniv, C. L., Petre, M., Roast, C., Roes, C., Wong, A., & Young, R. M. (2001). Cognitive dimensions of notations: Design tools for cognitive technology. In M. Beynon, C. L. Nehaniv, & K. Dautenhahn (Eds.), Cognitive technology 2001, Coventry (Lecture notes in artificial intelligence, Vol. 2117, pp. 325–341). Springer Footnote
This paper looks back at developments and applications of the cognitive dimensions of notation methodology in the ten years since it was first proposed. At the time it was written, it had become a fairly established methodology to assist the designers of notational systems, whether graphical or not, evaluate their design with respect to the impact they will have on users.
Blackwell, A., & Green, T. (1999). Investment of attention as an analytic approach to cognitive dimensions. In Collected papers of the 11th annual workshop of the psychology of programming interest group – PPIG-11, Leeds (pp. 24–35). Footnote
This paper takes a critical look at the cognitive dimensions of notations methodology. It does not dispute its effectiveness but attempts a disciplined, scientific categorization of the original and subsequently proposed cognitive dimensions.
Blackwell, A., & Green, T. (2003). Notational systems – the cognitive dimensions of notations framework. In J. M. Carroll (Ed.), HCI models, theories and frameworks: Towards an interdisciplinary science. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann. Footnote
This paper advocates the cognitive dimensions of notations framework as a device to helps designers build graphical user interfaces that with the desired cognitive properties. This practical study of the people tho design interfaces is in contrast with mainstream theoretical frameworks and user-centric approaches.
Blackwell, A. (2000). Dealing with new cognitive dimensions. In Workshop on cognitive dimensions: Strengthening the cognitive dimensions research community. Footnote
This paper is concerned with the process of determining what new dimensions should be included in the cognitive dimensions of notation framework. It does so by recounting conversations with that method’s creator, Thomas Green, and explores ideas for developing a methodology for evaluating candidate dimensions.
Blackwell, A. (2002). First steps in programming: A rationale for attention investment models. In Conference on human-centric computing languages and environments, Arlington (pp. 2–10). IEEE Computer Society. Footnote
This is the original paper on the attention investment model. It focuses on the initial attitude of non-professional end-users when given tasks that have a programming component (e.g., writing spreadsheet formulas or programming a VCR). In particular, the attention investment model examines the first steps these users take and tries to understand their actions based on task and system at hand.
Green, T., & Petre, M. (1996). Usability analysis of visual programming environments: A “cognitive dimensions” framework. Journal of Visual Languages and Computing, 7, 131–174. Footnote
This paper applies the cognitive dimensions of notation framework to the evaluation for visual programming environments, finding it particularly effective and a good complement for other techniques.
Green, T. (1989). Cognitive dimensions of notations. In A. Sutcliffe & L. Macaulay (Eds.), People and computers V (pp. 443–460). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Footnote
This is the original paper on the cognitive dimension of notations. At the time, it focused not so much on graphical user interfaces but on interactive devices and programming notations.
Green, T. (1996). An introduction to the cognitive dimensions framework. Available at http://homepage.ntlworld.com/greenery/workStuff/Papers/introCogDims/. Footnote
In the talk on which this extended abstract is based, Thomas Green discusses the reasons that led him to develop the cognitive dimensions of notation framework. This is a good first-person motivation of the origins of the methodology.
Green, T. (1996). The visual vision and human cognition. Available at http://homepage.ntlworld.com/greenery/workStuff/VL96Talk/VLTalk.html. Footnote
In this talk, Thomas Green discusses the progress in visual programming environments as well as some limitations. At he does this, the explains how his cognitive dimensions of notations can benefit the design of such systems as well as some usability targets for such designs.
Lewis, C., Rieman, J., & Bell, B. (1991). Problem-centered design for expressiveness and facility in a graphical programming system. Human-Computer Interaction, 6(3–4), 319–355. Footnote
This paper advocates a design methodology for graphical systems that is driven by concrete examples of tasks that users are expected to accomplish (problems) rather than abstract cognitive targets. This expands the space of design alternatives and acts as a benchmark to evaluate solutions.
Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability engineering. Boston: Academic. Footnote
This is a classic textbook on practical approaches to engineering usability in software. It covers both cost-effective methods that will help developers improve their user interfaces and software engineering principles to reduce delays due to usability issues in a project.
Nielsen, J., & Mack, R. L. (Eds.). (1994). Usability inspection methods. New York: Wiley. Footnote
This collection of essays brings together the best approaches to predictive user modeling in use at the time, with special emphasis on various types of cognitive walkthrough. It reports on numerous case studies and gives practical guidance to developers interested in embedding usability inspection into the software cycle.
Olson, J., & Olson, G. (1990). The growth of cognitive modeling in human-computer interaction since GOMS. Human-Computer Interaction, 5, 221–265. Footnote
This retrospective paper explores the advances of cognitive sciences and human-computer interaction technology since the proposals of the GOMS model. It also spells out the numerous shortcomings of methodologies of the time, for example their inability to account for things like user fatigue, individual differences, or mental workload. This is a very interesting read.
Panko, R. R. (1998). What we know about spreadsheet errors. Journal of End User Computing (Special issue on Scaling Up End User Development), 10(2), 15–21. Available at http://panko.shidler.hawaii.edu/ssr/Mypapers/whatknow.htm. Footnote
This very influential article carried out a systematic study of the number and type of errors found in spreadsheets. At the outset, the results are surprisingly high, which should limit our confidence about decisions made on the basis of spreadsheet calculations. This research also finds that this type and number is similar to programming in general, except that software engineering has developed methods to curb this error rate, while spreadsheet users take a more informal approach.
Peyton-Jones, S., Blackwell, A., & Burnett, M. (2003). A user-centred approach to functions in Excel. In Proceedings of the eighth ACM SIGPLAN international conference on functional programming, Uppsala (pp. 165–176). ACM. Footnote
This paper proposes a method for extending the traditional spreadsheet with user-defined functions without the expectation that an everyday user will acquire the sophistication of an addon programmer. This work relies on cognitive psychology techniques such as the cognitive dimension of notations and the attention investment model to retain the usability that characterizes the traditional spreadsheet. This work was extremely influential in the development of the deductive spreadsheet.
Spencer, R. (2000). The streamlined cognitive walkthrough method, working around social constraints encountered in a software development company. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems – CHI’00, The Hague (pp. 353–359). Footnote
This paper proposes a streamlined variant of the cognitive walkthrough approach to usability analysis that mitigates some of the drawbacks of the original methodology observed in software companies.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Cervesato, I. (2013). Cognitive Interface Design. In: The Deductive Spreadsheet. Cognitive Technologies. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37747-1_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37747-1_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-37746-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-37747-1
eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)