In October 2001, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) diplomatic conference adopted the draft convention prepared by the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) of IMO for the “Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems on Ships” (IMO-AFS2001). This international convention banned the application of organotin based antifouling paints by 1 January 2003, with a total ban on the presence of organotin by 1 January 2008. The convention was developed to immediately ban the use of organotin compounds such as tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT) globally in antifouling paints to protect the marine environment. The ban on TBT came about because TBT has extensive detrimental effects on non-target marine organisms. IMO-AFS2001 not only banned organotin, but also encouraged development of the alternative tin-free antifouling systems (i.e. environmentally friendly antifouling systems) (IMO 1999; 2001).
Additionally, the ban to use TBT-antifouling paints has resulted in increased research interest in developing alternative tin-free antifouling paints containing biocides that must be effective to control growth of organisms on submerged ship's hull (Vallee-Rehel et al. 1998; The Japan Shipbuilding Research Association 1993; Omae 2003) The environmental fate and aquatic toxicological profile of these tin-free booster biocides in the marine environment have been studied by many researchers (Okamura et al. 2002; Turley et al. 2000; Callow and Willingham 1996; HSE 2005; Harino 2004; Harino et al. 2005; Konstantinou and Albanis 2004). Here, the term ‘booster biocides’ means a group of compounds normally used in addition to copper compounds such as cuprous oxide (Cu2O) and cuprous thiocyanate (CuSCN) in antifouling paint formulations. Moreover, the ideal biocides should have the following characteristics (IMO 1999):
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1.
Broad spectrum activity
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2.
Low mammalian toxicity
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3.
Low seawater solubility
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4.
Low bioaccumulation in the food chain
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5.
Not persistent in the environment
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6.
Compatible with paint raw materials
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7.
Favourable price/performance
As typical candidates of the tin-free booster biocide, Sea-Nine 211 (DCOIT), Irgarol 1051 (CDMTD), Zineb, Ziram (PZ), Preventol A6 (Diuron), Chlorothalonil, Preventol A4-S (Dichlofluanid), Preventol A5-S (Tolylfluanid), Copper Omadine (CuPT), Zinc Omadine (ZnPT) and PK (pyridine-triphenylborane) have been used widely in the commercial TBT-free antifouling paints and copper-free antifouling paints in recent years (Okamura and Mieno 2006).
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Takahashi, K. (2009). Release Rate of Biocides from Antifouling Paints. In: Arai, T., Harino, H., Ohji, M., Langston, W.J. (eds) Ecotoxicology of Antifouling Biocides. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-85709-9_1
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