Abstract
Because of relative wealth of their perspective societies we have to consider programs for homeless youth and street children separately. Typically homeless youth receive housing (usually a foster home), food, and medical care including mental health care, schooling, transportation, clothing, and even support for extracurricular activities. In the developing world, the state rarely even responds to street children (and when it does it can be brutal). If the street child is resourceful he or she can find a drop in center run by a NGO where services usually are a bowel of porridge and sometimes a night’s shelter.
It is difficult to ascertain the effectiveness of programs serving homeless youth, even though some youth show some improvement it is difficult to know why. Cognitive behavioral therapy seemed to be effective. Drug and alcohol treatment programs without additional services do not appear to be helpful. In some cases one could argue that the results did not justify the money spent.
Education for homeless youth has been criticized for its excess of regulations, which makes it difficult for homeless youth to receive a public education. People working in programs for homeless youth also felt hemmed in by paper work.
Levels of intervention include micro (individual), meso (family and community, and macro (societal). Different intervention models are presented. The Needs Based Model, which assumes children need to be save from the streets and operates at the micro level. Needs based Institutional Model program takes children out of street situations and places them into institutional care, where they sleep, eat, and are educated without being able to return to the streets. On the streets they are earning money and spending it as they want, while in institutional programs they are forced into complete dependence. It is not easy for the children in street situations to go from charity to self support; in some cases forcing girls into accepting self exploitation.
The Needs Based models focus on the child. It does not address community and macro level problems, both of which are preventive and curing. One often overlooked programmatic goal is to teach the public about children in street situations.
In the Human Rights Model, based on the UNCRC, children in street situations are no longer seen as pathological objects but as social actors who can have significant roles in their own interventions.
Several best practices programs include Fundacion Junto con los Ninos (JUCONI) in Mexico, which is a comprehensive needs based model with significant meso level programs. Mkombozi program in Tanzania ensuring that children's rights are recognised; identifying opportunities for preventive intervention before a child migrates to the street and advocacy. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) does not work directly with children instead it funds NGOs and other organisations. Terre des Hommes (TDH) offers support for existing programs that empower children and family and community. It advocates for child rights, works with large institutions like UNICEF in discussions and network implementation, and contributes to reports for the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child.
Preventive approaches, the most difficult and perhaps most important work is to address the public’s, (particularly people with community influence), negative feelings about children in street situations, and to get the public to lobby for community support for poor children, or other children at high risk.
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Notes
- 1.
Sexual orientation that is unacceptable to parents is another issue for fleeing.
- 2.
Schumacher (2011) deplores that it was not possible to find any published best practices or similar reports about programmes concerning children in street situations in South Africa.
- 3.
As Verhellen (2000) says in this perspective children are considered as “not yet being”.
- 4.
As in any debate, the differences began with a strong opposition towards traditional views, as it was in the children’s liberation movement, also called kiddie libbers, which in the 1970’s attacked the long-standing and dominant paternalistic approach to children (which led toward needs-based humanitarian programs). Another example is the strict interpretation of the caveats of children’s right to participate (Gross and Gross 1977).
- 5.
This is also why, we said, street children tend to express themselves in a way that is socially acceptable when they want to gain some advantage. The adaptation skills of street children are very high. The challenge is to really hear what they have to say and not just listen to what they are saying.
- 6.
Mason and Bolzan (2010) have suggested that the developing world favours the liberationist argument because it values participation communally, even in situations that are difficult, such as children’s right to work in dignity.
- 7.
In 2006, about 10 million South African children lived in rural areas (Berry and Hall 2006) of which 2.3 million lived in shacks or backyard dwellings lacking the infrastructure of formal dwellings, without adequate housing or sanitation (Schumacher 2011). According to UNICEF (2000), more than half of all African children still use inadequate toilet facilities leading to a disproportionate number of cases of childhood diseases.
- 8.
Sen (1999) sees poverty as a lack of freedom to lead a suitable life, a lack of “capabilities”. The question is: how can we transform our human and material resources into better development for children in street situations? The way a society or community “transforms” material wealth into symbolic wealth (culture) helps us understand diversity in social integration and/or social exclusion. The competencies (instrumental and symbolic) of children in street situations can therefore be considered as a “reflection” of the social structure of their societies/communities.
- 9.
The Axe project started in 1989 in Salvador, Brazil, and from the start it worked with the National Movement of street boys and girls in Brazil (MNMMR) (Almeida and de Carvalho 2000). Its goal was to restore street children’s lives so they could become functional adult citizens. Its approach was to adopt Paulo Freire’s methodology of education, what they termed, “the pedagogy of desire”.
- 10.
The Asian Development Bank sees handouts in the streets as problematic because, according to their policy, they make street life bearable, and because they are unsustainable and create dependency (ADB 2003).
- 11.
Information on the rights of children should be taught for all ages and abilities, and with increasing sensitisation and awareness among adults. There should also be systematic mechanisms for influencing public decisions at all levels, for both remedy and redress.
- 12.
See for instance the Special Issue on Children as Social Actors; The International Journal of Children’s Rights, Volume 15, No 1, 2007.
- 13.
The UNCRC (United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child), was adopted by the UN General Assembly (1989) and entered into force in 1990, is the most widely ratified human rights treaty in history. The treaty has been very quickly ratified in all countries, except three, namely Somalia, South Sudan and the USA. Somalia is currently unable to proceed to ratification because it has no recognized government. The United States of America has signed but not yet ratified the treaty. Many countries have also ratified the Optional Protocols to the UNCRC, namely the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (adopted in 2000 and entered into force in 2002) and the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict (adopted in 2000 and entered into force in 2002). A third Optional Protocol which allows children to bring complaints to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child regarding the violation of their rights, has been adopted in December 2011. It has been signed by 37 countries and ratified by 6, but the numbers are growing. This Optional Protocol allows children in street situations, in the States which are parties to this OP, to directly bring complaints before the UN Committee.
- 14.
However, on a smaller preventive scale things can be done: food can be given to high risk families, either directly or to working children who are not making their quota.
- 15.
Marquez (1999) notes that once the Mexican street boys are incarcerated they are considered as the lowest marginalized group. They are given food only to reduce hunger and avoid starvation. The kitchen areas are dirty, with many pests. This is not so different than most NGO feeding programs for children who have never committed a crime.
- 16.
There is evidence that they weigh more than their domiciled counterparts (Wright et al. 1993). The hungriest children are those cases where the mother has had to go out to work and the oldest female child stays at home to help with child care.
- 17.
Summerfield believes that PTSD is what can be called a category fallacy. The same symptoms can be found in different cultures, but they have different meanings in the different cultures.
- 18.
See Brown et al. (2002) for how kinship care and foster care are related in the case of African-American runaway youth.
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Aptekar, L., Stoecklin, D. (2014). Programs: Typical and Exemplary. In: Street Children and Homeless Youth. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7356-1_5
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