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The Politics of Adoption

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 41))

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Abstract

Beginning with the social background to adoption, this chapter presents statistical data outlining the scope and pace of change to relevant areas of social context, considers the resulting impact on adoption trends and notes the principal emerging characteristics of contemporary adoption in Canada up to and including 2014. This is followed by an overview of adoption law and policy, insofar as is practicable in a nation where both strands are independently defined and administered by each province and territory. It then identifies and explains the regulatory components of the adoption process, including the status and remit of adoption agencies and other mediating bodies, together with the jurisdiction of the court and the role of the Registrar General. The thresholds for entering the adoption process are surveyed and discussed in relation to each of the parties involved but with particular attention given to factors such as the rights of the birth parents, the significance of attempted parental rehabilitation, and the eligibility/suitability of prospective adopters. The conditions for placing a child, which triggers the process, are identified and the culmination of the process in a judicial hearing, where the consent of the parties plays a crucial role, is examined. The thresholds for exiting the process are then reviewed with a special focus on the part played by the welfare interests of the child as the paramount determinant. The range of possible outcomes are specified and the effects of an adoption order on each of the parties are assessed. The chapter closes with a brief consideration of post-adoption support services and a lengthier analysis of information disclosure rights, vetoes on accessing information, tracing and reunion services etc.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The resulting difficulties have been well documented, see: Hepworth, H.P., Foster Care and Adoption in Canada, Ottawa, Council on Social Development, 1980; and the Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption Canada, ‘Canadian Foster Care Adoption Attitudes Survey’, 2014. Also note the concern expressed by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child in October 2012 when it drew attention to the continuing difficulties relating to matters such as ‘legislation, coordination, data collection … adoption’ (at para 8).

  2. 2.

    See, further, at: http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/adoption/

  3. 3.

    Statistics Canada, Fifty years of families in Canada: 1961 to 2011., at: http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2011/as-sa/98-312-x/98-312-x2011003_1-eng.cfm

  4. 4.

    See, Bala, N., and C. Ashbourne. 2012. The widening concept of parent in Canada: Step-parents, same-sex partners, & parents by ART. Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law 20(3), at p. 11.

  5. 5.

    See, The Canadian Encyclopedia, at: http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/marriage-and-divorce/

  6. 6.

    See, for example, Cahill, B.L., The butterbox babies, 1992.

  7. 7.

    See, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. at: http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2011/tables/11s1335.pdf

  8. 8.

    [1988] 1 SCR 30.

  9. 9.

    See, further, at: http://abortionincanada.ca/stats/annual-abortion-rates/

    Statistics Canada show a recorded total of 2,838,328 abortions between 1974 and 2006.

  10. 10.

    See, Statistics Canada. at: http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2011/as-sa/98-312-x/98-312-x2011003_1-eng.cfm

  11. 11.

    See, further, at: http://www.torontolife.com/informer/features/2014/02/03/baby-making-business-surrogacy-market-toronto/?page=all#tlb_multipage_anchor_1

  12. 12.

    See, In the Matter of X (Adoption) 091, 2009 QCCQ 628, [2009] RJQ 445 (Can. Que. Youth Ct.).

  13. 13.

    M.A.C. v. M.K. 2009 ONCJ 18 (Can. Ont. Ct. J.). A full account of this case can be found in Bala, N. and Ashbourne, C., ‘The widening concept of parent in Canada’ op cit, at pp. 13–14.

  14. 14.

    Ibid, at para 64.

  15. 15.

    See, further, at: http://www.cic.gc.ca/English/resources/manuals/bulletins/2012/ob381.asp

  16. 16.

    2010 SCC 61, [2010] 3 S.C.R. 457. Also, see, Fraess v. Alberta (Minister of Justice and Attorney General), 2005 ABQB 889 and DWH v. DJR, 2011 ABQB 119 at paras 15–17.

  17. 17.

    2007, ABCA 57 (Can. Alta. C.A.).

  18. 18.

    2012 BCCA 480, reversing 2011 BCSC 656.

  19. 19.

    See, Sask. Minister of Social Services v. E.(S.) [1992] 5 WWR 289 (Sask. QB).

  20. 20.

    See, Farris-Manning, C., and M. Zandstra. 2000. Children in care in Canada: A summary of current issues and trends with recommendations for future research. Ottawa, Ontario: Child Welfare League of Canada, at: http://www.nationalchildrensalliance.com/nca/pubs/2003/Children_in_Care_March_2003.pdf

  21. 21.

    See, Saskatchewan Child Welfare Review Panel Report. For the good of our children and youth: A new vision, a new direction, at pp. 15–16. See, further, at: http://saskchildwelfarereview.ca/CWR-panel-report.pdf

  22. 22.

    See, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 61st session, C/CAN/CO/3-4, October 2012, at para 55.

  23. 23.

    In fact Mulcahy and Trocmé conducted such a survey and estimated that in 2007 there were 67,000 children in out-of-home care across Canada. See, further, Mulcahy, M., and N. Trocmé. 2010. Children and youth in out-of-home care in Canada. Montreal: McGill University, Centre for Research on Children and Families.

  24. 24.

    See, further, at: http://www.canada.com/Census+Canada+foster+children+counted+first+time/7265318/story.html?__federated=1

    Also, see, Mulcahy, M., and N. Trocmé. 2010. Children and youth in out-of-home care in Canada. Québec: McGill University, Centre for Research on Children and Families.

  25. 25.

    See, CAS Niagara v. J.C. 2007 Canlii 8919 Div.Ct.

  26. 26.

    See, for example, Saskatchewan Children’s Advocate, ‘A Breach of Trust: An Investigation into Foster Care Overcrowding in the Saskatoon Service Centre’, 2009.

  27. 27.

    See, Forever Families: Ontario’s Adoption System, at: http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/infertility/report/foreverfamilies.aspx

  28. 28.

    See, Sobol, M., and K. Daly. 1994. Adoption in Canada. Guelph: University of Guelph.

  29. 29.

    See, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2009. Child adoption: Trends and policies. New York: United Nations, at p. 69.

  30. 30.

    See, Ross, E. 2001. Adoption issues and ideas. In Transitions. Vanier Institute of the Family 31(2).

  31. 31.

    See, Eggertson, L., President of the Adoption Council of Canada, at: http://canadaheartgallery.ca

  32. 32.

    As declared in the opening sentence of Lowe, N., and R. White. 1979. Wards of court. London: Butterworths.

  33. 33.

    See, CAS Hamilton v. M. 2003 O.J. No. 1274 (UFC).

  34. 34.

    [1925] AC 101.

  35. 35.

    [2010] O.J. No. 942.

  36. 36.

    See, The Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption Canada. 2014. Canadian foster care adoption attitudes survey, at: https://davethomasfoundation.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/DTFA-HarrisPoll-REPORT-CAN_Final-web.pdf

  37. 37.

    Ibid, at p. 36.

  38. 38.

    See, for example, Kohli, M.P. 2003. The golden bridge: Young immigrants to Canada, 1833–1939. Toronto: Natural Heritage Press. Also, see, Parker, R. 2008. Uprooted: The shipment of poor children to Canada, 1867–1919. Bristol: The Policy Press.

  39. 39.

    See, for example: Cohen, N.J., M. Loikasek, Z.Y. Zadeh, M. Pugliese, and H. Kiefer. 2008. Children adopted from China: A prospective study of their growth and development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 49(4): 458–468; and Rettig, M.A., and K. McCarthy-Rettig. 2006. A survey of the health, sleep, and development of children adopted from China. Health & Social Work 31(3): 201–207.

  40. 40.

    See, Johnson, G., On behalf of citizenship and immigration Canada. See, further, at: http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2013/08/05/canadas_ban_on_pakistani_adoptions_baffles_parents_clerics.html

  41. 41.

    See, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs/Population Division. Child adoption: Trends and policies. New York: United Nations, at p. 199.

  42. 42.

    1994 CanLII 2644 (BC SC).

  43. 43.

    See, for example, First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada. 2010. Supporting first nations adoption, at: http://www.fncaringsociety.com/sites/default/files/13.FNCFCS-Supporting-First-Nations-Adoption-Dec2010.pdf

  44. 44.

    See, further, Soronen, R., Solving Canada’s Adoption Crisis. The National Post (26.11.2013), at: http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2013/11/26/rita-soronen-solving-canadas-adoption-crisis/?__federated=1

  45. 45.

    The province recently invested $2 million aimed at increasing the number of adoption placements to 300 and the number of transfer of guardianship placements to 144 by March 31, 2015. Ten adoption agencies throughout the province received funding to achieve the ministry’s goal of increased permanency through adoption and guardianship placements for children and youth in care. See, further, Finding forever families: A review of the provincial adoption system, at: http://www.newsroom.gov.bc.ca/2014/06/representative-and-minister-align-on-adoption.html

  46. 46.

    See, Forever Families: Ontario’s Adoption System, at: http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/infertility/report/foreverfamilies.aspx

  47. 47.

    See, Farris-Manning, C., and M. Zandstra. 1996. Children in care in Canada., op cit at p. 3 citing Stein et al., ‘The mental health of children in foster care: A comparison with community and clinical samples. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 41, at pp. 385–386.

  48. 48.

    [1998] 2 SCR 534.

  49. 49.

    See, Statistics Canada, 2011 Census of Population, at: http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2011/as-sa/98-312-x/98-312-x2011001-eng.cfm

  50. 50.

    (1995) 125 DLR (4th) 653.

  51. 51.

    The Civil Marriage Act, adopted on 20th July 2005, legalized same-sex marriage across Canada.

  52. 52.

    See, Fellows, O.Z., ‘Same-sex adoptions hit record high in B.C.’. The thunderbird, at: http://thethunderbird.ca/2013/11/20/same-sex-adoptions-hit-record-high-in-b-c/

  53. 53.

    See, for example, Kimmelman, E. 1985. No quiet place: Manitoba review on Indian and metis adoptions and placements. Winnipeg: Ministry of Community Services.

  54. 54.

    See, McDade, K. 1991, April. International adoption in Canada: Public policy issues. Montreal: Institute for Research on Public Policy.

  55. 55.

    See, Baxter, C. 2006. Transracial adoption. Paediatric Child Health 11(7): 443–447.

  56. 56.

    Ibid, citing Westhues, A., and J.S. Cohen. 1994. Intercountry adoption in Canada. Executive summary. Ottawa: Human Resources Development Canada.

  57. 57.

    Ibid, citing Westhues, A., and J.S. Cohen. 1998. Ethnic and racial identity of internationally adopted adolescents and young adults: Some issues in relation to children’s rights. Adoption Quarterly 1: 33–55.

  58. 58.

    See, further, at: http://www.nacac.org

  59. 59.

    [2001] 2 SCR 1014.

  60. 60.

    Ibid, at para 39.

  61. 61.

    The organisation Adopting in Canada provides a list of such agencies, at: http://www.canadaadopts.com/canada/resources_priagencies.shtml

  62. 62.

    See, CAS of Oxford County v. Christine M., Terry M., and Grant B., 1999 Carswell Ont 4812 (OCJ).

  63. 63.

    [2010] O.J. No. 1134, at para 68.

  64. 64.

    See, Forever Families: Ontario’s Adoption System, at: http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/infertility/report/foreverfamilies.aspx

  65. 65.

    See, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 61st session, C/CAN/CO/3-4, October 2012, at para 57.

  66. 66.

    Ibid, at para 34.

  67. 67.

    See, Farris-Manning, C., and M. Zandstra., ‘Children in care in Canada’, op cit, at p. 3.

  68. 68.

    Ibid, citing Aitken, G. 2002. Extending options in permanency planning. In Permanency planning in the child welfare system. Ottawa: Sparrow Lake Alliance: Children in Limbo Task Force, at p. 23.

  69. 69.

    Ibid, at p. 13.

  70. 70.

    Ibid, citing Crosson-Tower, C. 2001. Exploring child welfare: A practice perspective, 2nd ed. Boston, MA, US: Allyn & Bacon, at p 331 and Aitken, G., Extending options in permanency planning in the child welfare system, op cit at pp. 23–24.

  71. 71.

    [2002] O.J. No. 1099 (OCJ).

  72. 72.

    See, Sobol, M.P., and K. Daly. 1995. Adoption practice in Canada: Emerging trends and challenges. Child Welfare 74(3): 655–678.

  73. 73.

    See, further, at: http://www.adoption.ca

  74. 74.

    See, further, at: http://www.carc-ia.com

    Also see, Adoption Horizons Inc at: http://www.adoptionhorizons.com

  75. 75.

    See, further, at: http://www.open-arms.com

  76. 76.

    An agency with a specialist focus on adoption from Ethiopia, its bankruptcy in 2010 saw a sharp drop in adoptions from that country: down from 170 in 2009 to 112 in 2010.

  77. 77.

    See, CAS Ottawa v. C.W. [2008] Canlii 13181 (Sup.Ct.).

  78. 78.

    See, the Child and Family Services Act 1990, s 151(4)(c).

  79. 79.

    See, D.C. v. W.A. [2003] O.J. No. 5119.

  80. 80.

    See, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 61st session, C/CAN/CO/3-4, October 2012, at paras 38 and 39.

  81. 81.

    [2003] O.J. No. 3281 (O.S.C).

  82. 82.

    See, Children’s Aid Society of Winnipeg (City) v. R. (1980), 19 R.F.L. (2d) 232 (Man.C.A.).

  83. 83.

    See, Children’s Aid Society of Brockville, Leeds and Grenville v. C. [2001] 2001 CarswellOnt 1504.

  84. 84.

    (1975), 23 R.F.L. 391 (Ont. Prov. Ct.—F.D.).

  85. 85.

    See, Children and Family Services for York Region v. A.W. and M.M. [2003] O.J. no. 996 (Sup. Ct.); CCAS v. P.A.M. [1998] O.J. No. 3766 (OCJ); CAS of the United Counties of Stormount, Dundas and Glengarry v. C.K. [2001] O.J. No. 128 (Sup. Ct.).

  86. 86.

    See Children’s Aid Society of the Niagara Region v. D. (W.) 2004 CanLII 66347 (ON S.C.), (2004), 1 R.F.L. (6th) 84 (Ont. S.C.J.); Children’s Aid Society of the Niagara Region v. B. (C.), [2005] O.J. No. 3878 (Ont. S.C.J.); Children and Family Services of York Region v. E. (P.), [2003] O.J. No. 4884 (Ont. S.C.J.); and Children’s Aid Society of London and Middlesex v. S. (E.V.F.) 2004 CanLII 34346 (ON S.C.), (2004), 1 R.F.L. (6th) 68 (Ont. S.C.J.).

  87. 87.

    See, Catholic Children’s Aid Society of Metropolitan Toronto v. Pier Angelii M., 1998 CanLII 14476 (ON C.J.).

  88. 88.

    See, Children’s Aid Society of Hamilton v. E.O., 2009 CanLII 72087 (ON S.C.).

  89. 89.

    See, further, at: https://www.adoption.on.ca/relative-adoption

  90. 90.

    At: http://www.childrensbridge.com/pages/chinaRA.html

  91. 91.

    See, further, at: http://worldviewadoption.com/relative-adoption/

  92. 92.

    2012 ONCJ 530 (CanLII).

  93. 93.

    See, H. (H.L.) v. Catholic children’s aid society of metropolitan Toronto, 1987, CanLII 2361 (ON SC).

  94. 94.

    2012 NSCA 43 (CanLII).

  95. 95.

    [1982] 2 S.C.R. 716.

  96. 96.

    See, Castel, J.-G. 1997. Canadian conflict of laws, 4th ed. Toronto: Butterworths, at p. 444.

  97. 97.

    Citing, L. (T.I.) v. F.(J.L.) 2001 MBCA 22 (CanLII).

  98. 98.

    2009 ONCJ 18 (CanLII).

  99. 99.

    Child and Family Services Act 1990, s 146(1).

  100. 100.

    See, for example, Adoption of Q.(A.L.K.) 1996 CanLII 4748 (ON CJ).

  101. 101.

    [2004] 1 SCR 76, 2004 SCC 4.

  102. 102.

    [1982] 2 S.C.R. 716.

  103. 103.

    Citing A. v. Liverpool City Council and another, [1981] 2 All E.R. 385.

  104. 104.

    [1980] 2 S.C.R. 368.

  105. 105.

    See, the U.N. Committee on the Rights of the Child, 61st session, C/CAN/CO/3-4, October 2012, at paras 36 and 37.

  106. 106.

    Child and Family Services Act 1990, s 152(3).

  107. 107.

    Ibid, s 153(5). Subsequently amended in 2006 to entitle such a child to “participate in the proceeding as if he or she were a party”.

  108. 108.

    See, Manitoba (Director of Child and Family Services) v. A.C. (2007), 212 Man.R. (2d) 163.

  109. 109.

    [2007] WDFL 2003 (Div. Ct.).

  110. 110.

    See, Children’s Aid Society of Oxford County v. W.T.C., 2013 ONCA 491 (CanLII).

  111. 111.

    2004 CanLII 14891 (ON S.C.)

  112. 112.

    Child and Family Services Act 1990, s 154.

  113. 113.

    See, CAS Niagara and J.C. 2007 CanLII 8919 Div.Ct.

  114. 114.

    Child and Family Services Act 1990, s 146.

  115. 115.

    Ibid, s 153.

  116. 116.

    125 DLR (4th) 653 (Ontario Court Provincial Division). Also, see, Kenne v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) 2010 FC 1079 CanLII.

  117. 117.

    See, for example: Re M.L.A. 1979 CanLII 257 (ON CJ); A.M. v. Chatham-Kent Integrated Children’s Services, 2006, CanLII 38864 (ON SC).

  118. 118.

    For inheritance rights, see for example, Re Marshall Estate, 2006 NSSC 38 (CanLII).

  119. 119.

    See, Worthington v. Canada, 2008 FC 409 (CanLII), [2009] 1 FCR 311.

  120. 120.

    1986 CanLII 1011 (BC CA).

  121. 121.

    Child and Family Services Act 1990, s 156.

  122. 122.

    See, the Canadian Foster Care Adoption Attitudes Survey, 2014, op cit at p. 30.

  123. 123.

    See, Farris-Manning, C., and M. Zandstra., Children in care in Canada, op cit, at p. 10, citing Ross, E. 2001. Adoption issues and ideas. In Transitions. The Vanier Institute of the Family, 31(2).

  124. 124.

    (2006), 81 O.R. (3d) 172.

  125. 125.

    See, further., O’Donnell, F.C. 1983. The four-sided triangle: A comparative study of the confidentiality of adoption records. University of Western Ontario Law Review 21, at pp. 129–142.

  126. 126.

    See, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 61st session, C/CAN/CO/3-4, October 2012, at para 57.

  127. 127.

    See, further, at: http://www.servicenl.gov.nl.ca/birth/accessing_records_under_adoption_act/index.html

  128. 128.

    See, Infant No. 10968 v. Her Majesty the Queen in right of Ontario, 2007 ONCA 787 (Can LII).

  129. 129.

    (2006), 81 O.R. (3d) 81.

  130. 130.

    See, Origins Canada, at: http://www.originscanada.org/adoption-records/searching-in-canada-resources/

  131. 131.

    See, further, at: http://www.canadiancrc.com/Finding_your_birth_parents_Canada.aspx

  132. 132.

    See, further, at: http://searchregistry.originscanada.org

  133. 133.

    Child and Family Services Act 1990, s 162(3)(2).

  134. 134.

    See, Dhami, M., D. Mandel, and K. Southmann. 2007. An evaluation of post–Adoption services. Children and Youth Services Review 29, at pp. 162–179.

  135. 135.

    See, Dwyer, S.C., and L. Gidluck. 2010. Pre—and post—Adoption support services in Canada: implications for policy makers, Working Paper No. 31–2010. Atlantic Metroplois Centre, at: http://community.smu.ca/atlantic/documents/WP31CorbinDwyer.pdf

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  1. Queensland University of Technology, Australian Centre for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

    Kerry O’Halloran

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O’Halloran, K. (2015). Canada. In: The Politics of Adoption. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 41. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9777-1_9

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