Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Scaffolding in Problem-based Learning

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
One-Day, One-Problem

Abstract

Till date, there have been different opinions about how resources or scaffolds should be used in a problem-based learning (PBL) curriculum. Some suggest that PBL is less effective and efficient compared to instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. Conversely, there are advocates who do believe that PBL does provide an adequate level of scaffolding to facilitate meaningful learning. Scaffolding refers to the provision of ample support to promote learning. According to Saye and Brush (Educational Technology Research and Development 50(3):77–96, 2002), scaffolding can be generally classified into two groups, hard and soft scaffolds. In general, soft scaffolds refer to the teacher’s actions in response to the learner’s efforts when there is a specific need. Examples of such scaffolds in a PBL environment setting would be the facilitator, as well as the formation of small collaborative problem-solving teams. In contrast, hard scaffolds are defined as static supports that are developed based on learner difficulties prior to an assigned task (e.g. solving a problem statement). Worksheets, internet resources and textbooks are instances of such supports that fall under this category. The one-day, one-problem approach in Republic Polytechnic utilizes a combination of various scaffolds varying from hard to soft, in order to promote a holistic learning environment for learners. In this chapter, information pertaining to the different scaffolds currently employed in this process will be shared in greater detail. This chapter also aims to allow readers to gain insights into previous studies related to scaffolds in PBL.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Barrows, H. S. (1988). The tutorial process. Springfield: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrows, H. S., & Tamblyn, R. M. (1980). Problem-based learning, an approach to medical education B2 – Problem-based learning, an approach to medical education. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belland, B., Glazewski, K., & Richardson, J. (2008). A scaffolding framework to support the construction of evidence-based arguments among middle school students. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(4), 401–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chng, E., Yew, E., & Schmidt, H. (2011). Effects of tutor-related behaviours on the process of problem-based learning. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 1–13. doi:10.1007/s10459-011-9282-7.

  • Cho, K., & Jonassen, D. (2002). The effects of argumentation scaffolds on argumentation and problem solving. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 5–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choo, S. S. Y., Rotgans, J. I., Yew, E. H. J., & Schmidt, H. G. (2011). Effect of worksheet scaffolds on student learning in problem-based learning. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 1–12. doi:10.1007/s10459-011-9288-1.

  • Clark, K. F., & Graves, M. F. (2005). Scaffolding students’ comprehension of text. The Reading Teacher, 58(6), 570–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 325–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolmans, D. H. J. M., & Schmidt, H. G. (2006). What do we know about cognitive and motivational effects of small group tutorials in problem-based learning? Advances in Health Sciences Education, 11(4), 321–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ertmer, P. A., & Simons, K. D. (2006). Jumping the PBL implementation hurdle: Supporting the efforts of K–12 teachers. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1(1), 40–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greening, T. (1998). Scaffolding for success in problem-based learning. Medical Education Online, 3(4), 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamdy, H. (2008). The fuzzy world of problem based learning. Medical Teacher, 30(8), 739–741. doi:10.1080/01421590802345891.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (1998). Problem-based learning: Effects on the early acquisition of cognitive skill in medicine. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 7(2), 173–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2009). Whare do we know about problem-based learning?: Current status and future prospects. Paper presented at the 2nd international PBL symposium 2009, Republic Polytechnic, Singapore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hmelo-Silver, C. E., & Barrows, H. S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based learning facilitator. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1(1), 21–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, B., & Ritchie, D. (1997). Using multimedia to overcome the problems with problem based learning. Instructional Science, 25, 97–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hung, W. (2011). Theory to reality: A few issues in implementing problem-based learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 1–24. doi:10.1007/s11423-011-9198-1.

  • Khoo, H. E. (2003). Implementation of problem-based learning in Asian medical schools and students’ perceptions of their experience. Medical Education, 37(5), 401–409. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.2003.01489.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Land, S., & Hannafin, M. (1997). Patterns of understanding with open-ended learning environments: A qualitative study. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(2), 47–73. doi:10.1007/BF02299524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lohfeld, L., Neville, A., & Norman, G. (2005). PBL in undergraduate medical education: A qualitative study of the views of Canadian residents. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 10, 189–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maudsley, G. (1999). Roles and responsibilities of the problem based learning tutor in the undergraduate medical curriculum. BMJ, 318(7184), 657–661.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie, J. (1999). Scaffolding for success. In Beyond technology, questioning, research and the information literate school community. Bellingham: FNO Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Norman, G. R., & Schmidt, H. G. (1992). The psychological basis of problem-based learning: A review of the evidence. Academic Medicine, 67(9), 557–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roehler, L., & Cantlon, D. (1997). Scaffolding: A powerful tool in social constructivist classrooms. In M. P. K. Hogan (Ed.), Scaffolding student learning: Instructional approaches and issues (pp. 6–42). Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotgans, J. I., & Schmidt, H. G. (2011a). The role of teachers in facilitating situational interest in an active-learning classroom. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(1), 37–42. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.06.025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotgans, J. I., & Schmidt, H. G. (2011b). Situational interest and academic achievement in the active-learning classroom. Learning and Instruction, 21(1), 58–67. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.11.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Savey, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1996). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. In B. G. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design (pp. 139–146). Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saye, J. W., & Brush, T. (2002). Scaffolding critical reasoning about history and social issues in multimedia-supported learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 77–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, H. G., & Moust, J. H. (1995). What makes a tutor effective? A structural-equations modeling approach to learning in problem-based curricula. Academic Medicine, 70(8), 708–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, H. G., & Moust, J. H. C. (2000). Factors affecting small-group tutorial learning: A review of research. In D. H. Evensen & C. E. Hmelo (Eds.), Problem-based learning: A research perspective on learning interactions (pp. 19–52). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, H. G., Loyens, S. M. M., Van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2007). Problem-based learning is compatible with human cognitive architecture: Commentary on Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 91–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, H. G., Van der Molen, H. T., Te Winkel, W. W. R., & Wijnen, W. H. F. W. (2009). Constructivist, problem-based, learning does work: A meta-analysis of curricular comparisons involving a single medical school. Educational Psychologist, 44(4), 227–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, H. G., Rotgans, J. I., & Yew, E. H. J. (2011). The process of problem-based learning: What works and why. Medical Education, 45(8), 792–806. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04035.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, K., & Klein, J. (2007). The impact of scaffolding and student achievement levels in a problem-based learning environment. Instructional Science, 35(1), 41, (32).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, D., & Miflin, B. (2008). Problem-based learning: Where are we now? Medical Teacher, 30(8), 742–763. doi:10.1080/01421590802217199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1997). Training complex cognitive skills: A four-component instructional design model for technical training. Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verenikina, I. (2008). Scaffolding and learning: Its role in nurturing new learners. In P. Kell, W. Vialle, D. Konza, & G. Vogl (Eds.), Learning and the learner: Exploring learning for new times. Wollongong: University of Wollongong.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Will, A. M. (1997). Group learning in workshops. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 5(2), 153–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zumbach, J., Kumpf, D., & Koch, S. (2004). Using multimedia to enhance problem-based learning in elementary school. Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, 16, 25–37.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Republic Polytechnic, Singapore, Singapore

    Serene S. Y. Choo

Authors
  1. Serene S. Y. Choo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Serene S. Y. Choo .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. woodlands Avenue 9, Singapore, 738964, Singapore

    Glen O'Grady

  2. Singapore, Singapore

    Elaine H.J. Yew

  3. Woodlands Avenue 9, Singapore, 738964, Singapore

    Karen P.L. Goh

  4. Rotterdam, 3062 PA, Netherlands

    Henk G. Schmidt

Appendix A: Example of a Worksheet Scaffold from the Immunology Curriculum, Republic Polytechnic, 2009–2010

Appendix A: Example of a Worksheet Scaffold from the Immunology Curriculum, Republic Polytechnic, 2009–2010

  1. 1.

    Judy was cutting some craft paper, when she accidentally cut her finger with the pen-knife. After a few minutes, Judy noticed some redness and swelling of the injured area. The diagram below illustrates the process of inflammation that occurred after the injury. Inflammation is a protective response against injury and infection.

    There are different types of injury that bring about inflammation. Match the appropriate examples given below to each of their corresponding type of injury.

    Example

    Type of injury

    Exposure to corrosives

    Mechanical

    Microbial infection

    Chemical

    Burn

    Physical

    A knife cut

    Biological

    figure b_8
    1. (a)

      Why are the phagocytes able to exit from the capillary as shown in B? Are there additional signals to recruit the neutrophils to the site of injury? (Hint: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WEGGMaRX8f0&feature=related, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZUUfdP87Ssg&playnext=1&list= PLE90A38E86B901151)

    2. (b)

      What is the main function of the blood clotting elements?

  2. 2.

    The table below shows some of the immune cells that are involved in inflammation, as well as their roles in subsidizing inflammation. Fill in the roles of the immune cells shown in the table.

    figure c_8
  3. 3.

    To aid the recovery of an injury, mediators are released by the immune cells present during the inflammatory process. Complete the table below which shows some of these mediators, their origin and functions.

    Mediator

    Origin

    Function(s)

    Histamine

    Mast cells

    		 

    Basophils

    Chemotactic factors

    		  

    Prostaglandins

    Cyclooxygenase pathway

    		 

    Fibrinopeptides

    Clotting system

    		 
  4. 4.

    After 2 days, Judy realized that her injured finger had some pus oozing out from the cut, which indicated the onset of chronic inflammation. Chronic inflammation only occurs if the first stage of inflammatory response persists.

    1. (a)

      What is another commonly used term to denote the first stage of inflammation?

    2. (b)

      Which immune cell(s) is/are mainly involved in chronic inflammation?

Going Further

  1. 1.

    Too much of a good thing can be bad. What kind of medical condition(s) will chronic inflammation lead to?

  2. 2.

    Although development of an effective inflammatory response plays a significant role in the body’s defense, the response can sometimes be harmful. Conditions such as allergies and microbial infections may lead to chronic inflammatory responses. Therefore, some approaches can be used to reduce chronic inflammation. Discuss some of these approaches and the rationale behind using these approaches.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media Singapore

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Choo, S.S.Y. (2012). Scaffolding in Problem-based Learning. In: O'Grady, G., Yew, E., Goh, K., Schmidt, H. (eds) One-Day, One-Problem. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-4021-75-3_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation