Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Theoretical Overview: Comparative Media Studies and the Lebanese State

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Lebanese Media

  • 321 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter discusses the theoretical underpinnings of the work, which would inform the rest of the monograph. Previous attempts at comparative studies in the field of media and communications are assessed. In particular, the seminal work by Hallin and Mancini; their four dimensions of state role, political parallelism, professionalization and media market; and their three models—the Polarized Pluralist, the Democratic Corporatist and Liberal models—are critically assessed. In the second part of this chapter, El-Richani explains the social, political and historical context of Lebanon, as this has a direct impact on its media system. Relevant political concepts such as weak states and small states are also discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Bibliography

  • Aalberg, T., van Aelst, P., & Curran, J. (2010). Cross-national comparison media systems and the political information environment. International Journal of Press/Politics, 15(3), 255–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abrams, P. (2007). Notes on the difficulty of studying the state. In A. Sharma & A. Gupta (Eds.), Blackwell Readers in Anthropology: Vol. 9. The Anthropology of the State. A Reader (pp. 112–130). Malden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • AbuKhalil, A. (1998). Historical Dictionary of Lebanon. Asian Historical Dictionaries: Vol. 30. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abu-Rabi’, I. M. (2004). Contemporary Arab Thought: Studies in Post-1967 Arab Intellectual History. London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Acemoglu, D. (2005). Politics and economics in weak and strong states. Journal of Monetary Economics, 52, 1199–1226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ajami, F. (1986). The Vanished Imam: Musa al Sadr and the Shia of Lebanon. New York, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allan, S., & Zelizer, B. (Eds). (2004). Reporting War: Journalism in Wartime. Oxford, New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amin, H. (2002). Freedom as a value in Arab media: Perceptions and attitudes among journalists, Political Communication, 19(2), 125–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, B. (1992). The new world disorder. New Left Review, 193, 3–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balčytienė, A. (2009). Market-led reforms as incentives for media change, development and diversification in the Baltic states: A small country approach. The International Communication Gazette, 71(1–2), 29–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benhabib, S. (1992). Models of public space: Hannah Arendt, the liberal tradition, and Jürgen Habermas. In C. Calhoun (Ed.) Habermas and the Public Sphere. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 73–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennet, L. & Livingston, S. (2003). Editor’s introduction: A semi-independent press: Government control and journalistic autonomy in the political construction of news. Political Communication, 20(4), 359–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, R. (2011). Futures of the news: International considerations and further reflections. In N. Fenton (Ed.), New Media, Old News. Journalism and Democracy in the Digital Age (pp. 187–200). Los Angeles: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertrand, C.-J. (1997). Quality Control: Media Ethics and Accountability Systems. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertrand, C.-J. (2005). Introduction: Media accountability. Pacific Journalism Review, 11(2), 5–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blum, R. (2007). Ein europäisches Modell für die Struktur der Ethikinstitutionen? Zeitschrift für Kommunikationsökologie und Medienethik, 9, 76–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumler, J. G. (2005). Political communication systems all change. A response to Kees Brant. In D. McQuail, P. Golding, & E. de Bens (Eds.), Communication Theory & Research. An ECJ anthology (pp. 118–124). London, Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Blumler, J. G. & Gurevitch, M. (2000). Rethinking the study of political communication. In J. Curran & M. Gurevitch (Eds.), Mass Media and Society (3rd ed., pp. 155–172). London, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (pp. 241–258). New York: Greenwood.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (2005). The political field, the social field, and the journalistic field. In R. Benson & E. Neveu (Eds.), Bourdieu and the Journalistic Field (pp. 29–46). Cambridge: Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd-Barett, O. (2009). Changing paradigms of media research and practice in contexts of globalisation and terror. In D.K. Thussu (Ed.), Internationalizing Media Studies (pp. 116–130). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brants, K. (1998). Who’s afraid of infotainment? European Journal of Communication, 13, 305–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board (2013). Trends in Television Viewing 2012. London: BARB. Retrieved from http://www.barb.co.uk/file/download/resources/trends-in-tv/BARB+Trends+in+Television+Viewing+2013.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun, C. (1992). Introduction. In C. Calhoun (Ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere (pp. 1–50). Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpentier, N. & Cammaerts, B. (2006). Hegemony, democracy, agonism and journalism: An interview with Chantal Mouffe. Journalism Studies, 7(6), 964–975.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, T. (1990). Comparative international media ethics. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 5(1), 3–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, R. & Sarayrah, Y. K. (1993). Wasta: The Hidden Force in Middle Eastern Society. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, J. (1991). Rethinking the media as a public sphere. In Peter Dahlgren and Colin Sparks (Eds.), Communication and Citizenship, (pp. 27–57). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, J. (1998). Crisis of public communication: A reappraisal. In T. Liebes and J. Curran (Eds.), Media, Ritual and Identity (pp. 175–202). London, New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, J. (Ed.) (2000a). Media Organisations in Society. London: Arnold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, J. (2000b). Rethinking media and democracy. In J. Curran & M. Gurevitch (Eds.), Mass Media and Society (3rd ed., pp. 122–154). London, New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, J. (2007, November). Global media systems, public knowledge and democracy. Public Lecture conducted from London School of Economics and Political Science, London. Retrieved from http://www.lse.ac.uk/newsAndMedia/videoAndAudio/channels/publicLecturesAndEvents/player.aspx?id=265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, J., Iyengar, S., Lund, A. B. & Salovaara-Moring, I. (2009). Media system, public knowledge and democracy: A comparative study. European Journal of Communication, 24(1), 5–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • d’Haenens, L., Antoine, F., & Saeys, F. (2009). Belgium: Two communities with diverging views on how to manage media diversity. The International Communication Gazette, 71(1–2), 51–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodds, K. (2007). Geopolitics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Donsbach, W., & Patterson, T. E. (2004). Political news journalists: Partisanship, professionalism, and political roles in five countries. In F. Esser & B. Pfetsch (Eds.), Communication, Society, and Politics. Comparing Political Communication. Theories, Cases, and Challenges (pp. 251–270). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Downing, J. D. H. (1996). Internationalizing Media Theory: Transition, Power, Culture. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Durkheim, E. (1982). The Rules of Sociological Method. New York: The Free Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Eberwein, T., Fengler, S., Lauk, E., & Leppik-Bork, T. (Eds.) (2011). Mapping Media Accountability in Europe and Beyond . Cologne: Herbert von Halem Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelstein, A. S. (1982). Comparative Communication Research. Beverly Hills, California, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • El Khazen, F. (1991). The Communal Pact of National Identities: The Making and Politics of the 1943 National Pact. Oxford: Centre for Lebanese Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • El Khazen, F. (2003). Political parties in postwar Lebanon: Parties in search of partisans. The Middle East Journal, 57(4), 605–624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eley, G. (1992). Nations, publics, and political cultures: Placing Habermas in the nineteenth century. In C.C Alhoun (Ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 109–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • El-Nawawy, M. & Iskandar, A. (2002). The minotaur of ‘contextual objectivity’: War coverage and the pursuit of accuracy with appeal. Transnational Broadcasting Studies, 9 (fall/winter). Retrieved from http://tbsjournal.arabmediasociety.com/Archives/Fall02/Iskandar.html .

  • Elstein, D. (2001, August 15). Neither history nor mystery but reality [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.opendemocracy.net/media-publicservice/article_49.jsp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Entman, R. (2001). The American Media and Race Relations in an Interdependent World. Washington, DC: Shorenstein Center Conference on Race and the Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eriksen, S. S. (2010). The theory of failure and the failure of theory: “state failure” in theory and practice. In K.B. Harpviken (Ed.), Troubled Regions and Failing States: The Clustering and Contagion of Armed Conflicts (pp. 27–50). Bingley: Emerald.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Erk, J. (2003). Wat we zelf doen, doen we beter: Belgian substate nationalisms, congruence and public policy. Journal of Public Policy, 23(2), 201–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esser, F., & Hanitzsch, T. (2012). On the why and how of comparative inquiry in communication studies. In F. Esser & Hanitzsch, T. (Eds.), Handbook of Comparative Communication Research (pp. 3–22). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esser, F., & Pfetsch, B. (2004). Comparing political communication: Reorientations in a changing world. In F. Esser & Pfetsch, B. (Eds.), Communication, Society, and Politics. Comparing Political Communication. Theories, Cases, and Challenges (pp. 3–22). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission (2012). Media Use in the European Union. Standard Eurobarometer 78. Brussels: EU Directorate-General Communication.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evers, H. & Everwein, T. (2011). Can a million toothless tigers make a difference? Potentials and pitfalls of web-based accountability processes in German journalism. MediaAct Working Paper. Tampere: Journalism Research and Development Centre, University of Tampere. Retrieved from http://www.mediaact.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/WP4/WP4_Germany.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fakhoury Mühlbacher, T. (2009). Democratisation and Power-Sharing in Stormy Weather: The Case of Lebanon. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fenton, N. (Ed.) (2011). New Media, Old News: Journalism and Democracy in the Digital Age. Los Angeles: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferre, J. P. (2009). A short history of media ethics in the United States. In L. Wilkins, & C. G. Christians (Eds.), The Handbook of Mass Media Ethics (pp. 15–27). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Firro, K. M. (2003). Inventing Lebanon: Nationalism and the State under the Mandate. London: I. B. Tauris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foucault, M. (2002). Power. Essential works of Foucault: Vol. 3. (J.D. Faubion, Trans.). New York: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, N. (1992) Rethinking the public sphere: A contribution to the critique of actually existing democracy. In Calhoun, C. (Ed.) Habermas and the Public Sphere (pp. 109–142). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frith, S. (2000). Entertainment. In J. Curran, & M. Gurevitch (Eds.). Mass Media and Society (3rd edition, pp. 201–217). London, New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmiths Media Group (2000). Media organisations in society: Central issues. In J. Curran (Ed.), Media Organisations in Society (pp. 19–65). London: Arnold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graafland, J. J. (2007). Economics, Ethics and the Market: Introduction and Applications. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groenhart, H. (2011). Between Hope and Fear: Distinctiveness of Media Accountability Online in the Netherlands. University of Tampere: Journalism Research and Development Centre. Retrieved from http://www.mediaact.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/WP4/MediaAcT_Working_Paper_Netherlands.pdf.

  • Groseclose, T., & Milyo, J. (2005). A measure of media bias. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 120(4), 1191–1237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guelke, A. (2012). Politics in Deeply Divided Societies. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurevitch, M., & Blumler, J. G. (2004). State of the art of comparative political communication research: Poised for maturity? In F. Esser, & B. Pfetsch (Eds.), Communication, Society, and Politics. Comparing Political Communication. Theories, Cases, and Challenges (pp. 325–343). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (1991). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (1981). Reason and the Rationalization of Society [Theory of Communicative Action 1]. Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (2006). Political communication in media society: Does democracy still enjoy an epistemic dimension? The impact of normative theory on empirical research. Communication Theory, 16(4), 411–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hafez, K. (2002a). International vergleichende Medienforschung: Eine unterentwickelte Forschungsdimension. In K. Hafez (Ed.), Die Zukunft der internationalen Kommunikationswissenschaft in Deutschland (pp. 59–94). Hamburg: Deutsches Übersee-Institut.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hafez, K. (2002b). Journalism ethics revisited: A comparison of ethics codes in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Muslim Asia. Political Communication, 19(2), 225–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hafez, K. (2007). The Myth of Media Globalization. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hafez, K. (2008a). European-Middle Eastern relations in the Media Age. Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication, 1(1), 30–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hafez, K. (2008c). The unknown desire for “objectivity”: Journalism ethics in Arab (and Western) journalism. In K. Hafez (Ed.), Arab Media. Power and Weakness (pp. 147–164). New York: Continuum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hafez, K. (2009). Let’s improve ‘global journalism’! Journalism: Theory, Practice and Criticism, 10(3), 329–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hafez, K. (Ed.) (2003). Media Ethics in the Dialogue of Cultures. Journalistic Self-Regulation in Europe, the Arab World, and Muslim Asia. Hamburg: Deutsches Orient-Institut.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, S. (1997). The work of representation. In S. Hall (Ed.), Representation: Cultural Representations and Significant Practices (pp. 13–74). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halliday, F. (2005). The Middle East in International Relations: Power, Politics and Ideology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hallin, D. C. & Papathanassopoulos, S. (2002). Political clientelism and the media: Southern Europe and Latin America in comparative perspective. Media Culture Society, 24(2), 175–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hallin, D. C. (2013). Between reporting and propaganda: Power, culture and war reporting. In J. Seethaler, G.M. Karmasin, & R. Woehlert (Eds.), The Role of the Mass Media in Hostile Conflicts from World War I to the “War on Terror” (pp. 93–106). Bristol: Intellect.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004). Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2012). Conclusion. In D. C. Hallin, & P. Mancini (Eds.), Comparing Media Systems Beyond the Western World (pp. 278–304). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallin, D. C., & Papathanassopoulos, S. (2002). Political clientelism and the media: Southern Europe and Latin America in comparative perspective. Media, Culture and Society, 24(2), 175–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanf, T. (1990). Koexistenz im Krieg. Staatszerfall und Entstehen einer Nation im Libanon. Baden-Baden: Nomos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanitzsch, T. (2005). Journalism research in Germany: Origins, theoretical innovations and future outlook. Brazilian Journalism Research, 2(1), 39–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanitzsch, T. (2007). Deconstructing journalism culture: Toward a universal theory. Communication Theory, 17, 367–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanitzsch, T., & Donsbach, W. (2012). Comparing journalism cultures. In F. Esser, & T. Hanitzsch (Eds.), Handbook of Comparative Communication Research (pp. 262–275). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanitzsch, T., Hanusch, F., Mellado, C., Anikina, M. , Berganza, R., Cangoz, I., Coman, M., Basyouni, H., Hernandez, M.E., Kardjov, C.D., Moreira, S.V., Mwesige, P.G., Plaisance, P.L., Reich, Z., Seethaler, J., Skewes, E.A., Noor, D.V., & Wang Yuen, E.K. (2011). Mapping journalism cultures across nations: A comparative study of 18 countries. Journalism Studies, 12(3), 273–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, J. (2008). Western Media Systems. Communication and Society. London, New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, J. (2012). Comparing media systems. In F. Esser & T. Hanitzsch (Eds.), Handbook of Comparative Communication Research (pp. 185–206). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haugbølle, S. (2010). War and Memory in Lebanon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hepp, A. (2009). Transculturality as a perspective: Researching media cultures comparatively. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 10(1), Art. 26, Retrieved from http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0901267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hepp, A., & Couldry, N. (2009). What should comparative media research be comparing? Towards a transcultural approach to ‘media cultures’. In D. K. Thussu (Ed.), Internationalizing Media Studies (pp. 32–47). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (1988). Manufacturing Consent. New York: Pantheon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herman, E. S., & McChesney, R. W. (2004). The Global Media: The New Missionaries of Corporate Capitalism. London: Continuum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirst, D. (2010). Beware of Small States: Lebanon, Battleground of the Middle East. London: Faber & Faber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hourani, A. H. (1946). Syria and Lebanon: A Political Essay. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hourani, A. H. (1985). Political Society in Lebanon: A Historical Introduction. London: Centre for Lebanese Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys, P. (1996). Mass Media and Media Policy in Western Europe. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys, P. (2012). A political scientist’s contribution to the comparative study of media systems in Europe: A response to Hallin and Mancini. In N. Just, & M. Puppis (Eds.), Trends in Communication Policy Research: New Theories, Methods and Subjects (pp.157–176). Bristol; Chicago, IL: Intellect.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iskandar, A. (2007). Lines in the sand: Problematizing Arab media in the post-taxonomic era. Arab Media and Society, 2. Retrieved from http://www.arabmediasociety.com/index.php?article=226&p=1.

  • Jackson, R. H. (1990). Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jay, A. &, Lynn, J. (Writers), & Whitmore, P. (Director) (1982). Yes Minister: The Middle-Class Rip-Off [Television series]. London: BBC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Just, N. (2009). Measuring media concentration and diversity: New approaches and instruments in Europe and the US. Media Culture & Society, 31(1), 97–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karppinen, K. (2007). Against naïve pluralism in media politics: On the implications of the radical-pluralist approach to the public sphere. Media Culture & Society, 29(3), 495–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karppinen, K. (2009). Rethinking media pluralism and communicative abundance. Observatorio (OBS), 3(4), 151–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karppinen, K. (2013). Rethinking Media Pluralism . New York: Fordham University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, D. (2000). Between description and explanation in state theory: Rethinking Marx and Weber. Journal of Historical Sociology, 13(2), 215–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, M. (2006). Imposing Power-Sharing: Conflict and Coexistence in Northern Ireland and Lebanon. Dublin: Irish Acad. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khalaf, S. (1977). Changing forms of political patronage in Lebanon. In E. Gellner, & J. Waterbury (Eds.), Patrons and Clients in Mediterranean Societies (pp. 185–205). Indianapolis: Duckworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kingston, P. W. T. (2004). States-within-states: Historical and theoretical perspectives: Introduction. In P. W. T. Kingston, & I. S. Spears (Eds.), States-Within-States. Incipient Political Entities in the Post-Cold War Era (pp. 1–13). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kingston, P. W.T., Zahar, M-J. (2004). Rebuilding a house of many mansions. The rise and fall of militia cantons in Lebanon. In P. W. T Kingston, & I. Spears, (Eds.). States-Within-States. Incipient Political Entities in the Post-Cold War Era (pp. 81–97). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiwan, F. (1993). The formation of Lebanese civil society. The Beirut Review, (6). Retrieved from http://www.ldn-lb.org/details.aspx?id=166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaehn, J. (2005). A critical review and assessment of Herman and Chomsky’s ‘propaganda model’. In D. McQuail, P. Golding, & E. de Bens (Eds.), Communication Theory & Research. An ECJ Anthology (pp. 139–153). London; Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleinsteuber, H. J. (2004). Comparing mass communication systems: Media formats, media contents, and media processes. In F. Esser, & B. Pfetsch (Eds.), Communication, Society, and Politics. Comparing Political Communication. Theories, Cases, and Challenges (pp. 64–86). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kraft, M., Al-Mazri, M., Wimmen, H., & Zupan, N. (2008). Walking the Line: Strategic Approaches to Peacebuilding in Lebanon. Bonn: Working Group on Development and Peace “FriEnt”; Forum Civil Peace Service “forum ZFD”; German Development Service; Heinrich Böll Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.frient.de/downloads/Libanon_Study_fin.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraidy, M. M. (2005b). Globalization avant la lettre? Cultural hybridity and media power in Lebanon. In P. D. Murphy, & M. M. Kraidy (Eds.), Global Media Studies. Ethnographic Perspectives (pp. 276–295). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraidy, M., & Khalil, J. (2009). Arab Television Industries. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Krasner, S.D. (2004). Sharing sovereignty: New institutions for collapsed and failing states. International Security, 29(2), 85–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krasner, S. D., & Pascual, C. (2005). Addressing state failure. Foreign Affairs, 84(4), 153–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Künzler, M. (2009). Switzerland: Desire for diversity without regulation – a paradoxical case. International Communication Gazette, 71(1–2), 67–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • La Porte, T., Medina, M., & Sádaba, T. (2007). Globalization and pluralism: The function of public television in the European audiovisual market. The International Communication Gazette, 69(4), 377–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laitila, T. (2005). Journalistic codes of ethics in Europe. In D. McQuail, P. Golding, & E. de Bens (Eds.). Communication Theory & Research. An ECJ Anthology (pp. 191–204). London, Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, K. (1996). The European roots. In D.E. Dennis, & E. Wartella (Eds.), The Remembered History (pp. 1–20). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leveson, J. (2012). A Report into the Culture, Practices and Ethics of the Press: Remarks by Lord Justice Leveson, Thursday 29 November 2012. Retrieved from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140122145147/http:/www.levesoninquiry.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Remarks-by-Lord-Justice-Leveson-29-November-2012.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenberg, J. (2000). In defence of objectivity revisited. In Curran, J., & M. Gurevitch (Eds.) Mass Media and Society (pp. 238–255). London, New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lijphart, A. (1988). A Mediterranean model of democracy? The Southern European democracies in comparative perspective. West European Politics, 11(1), 7–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lijphart, A. (2002). Negotiation democracy versus consensus democracy: Parallel conclusions and recommendations. European Journal of Political Research, 41, 107–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lijphart, A. (2008). Thinking About Democracy: Power Sharing and Majority Rule in Theory and Practice. London, New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorwin, V. R. (1971). Segmented pluralism: Ideological cleavages and political cohesion in the smaller European democracies. Comparative Politics, 3(2), pp. 141–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luther, C.A., Lepre, C. R., & Clark, N. (2012). Diversity in the U.S. Media. Malden, MA & Oxford: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maass, M. (2009). The elusive definition of the small state. International Politics, 46, 65–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mancini, P. (2000). How to combine media commercialization and party affiliation: The Italian experience. Political Communication, 17(4), 319–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCargo, D. (2012). Partisan polyvalence: Characterising the political role of Asian media. In D. C. Hallin & P. Mancini (Eds.), Comparing Media Systems Beyond the Western World (pp. 201–223). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McChesney, R. W. (2003). The problem of journalism: A political economic contribution to an explanation of the crisis in contemporary US journalism. Journalism Studies, 4(3), 299–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDevitt, M. (2006). In defense of autonomy: A critique of the public journalism critique. The Journal of Communication, 53(1), 155–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McQuail, D. (2005a). Accountability of media to society: Principles and means. In D. McQuail, P. Golding, & E. de Bens (Eds.), Communication Theory & Research. An ECJ Anthology (pp. 89–102). London; Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • McQuail, D. (2005c). Introduction and overview. In D. McQuail, P. Golding, & E. de Bens (Eds.), Communication Theory & Research. An ECJ Anthology (pp. 1–11). London; Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Media Diversity Institute, International Federation of Journalists & Article 19 (2012). Getting the Facts Right. Reporting Ethnicity and Religion: A study of Media Coverage of Ethnicity and Religion in Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Slovakia and the United Kingdom. Belgium: Rupar, Verica. Retrieved from http://www.media-diversity.org/en/additional-files/documents/b-studies-reports/EJI_study_FINAL%20for%20Web.pdf.

  • Mellado, C. & Humanes, M.L. (2012). Modelling perceived professional autonomy in Chilean journalism. Journalism, 13(8), 985–1003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Migdal, J. S. (2001) State in Society: Studying How States and Societies Transform and Constitute one another. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Migrant Voice. (2014). Migrant Voice UK Media-Monitoring Research: Migrant Voices in Migration Stories. Retrieved from http://www.media-diversity.org/en/additional-files/229372612-Migrants-Invisible-in-UK-Media.pdf.

  • Mill, J. S. (2006). Collected Works of John Stuart Mill. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milton-Edwards, B., & Hinchcliffe, P. (2008). Conflicts in the Middle East since 1945 (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, T. (2007). Society economy and the state effect. In A. Sharma, & A. Gupta (Eds.), Blackwell Readers in Anthropology: Vol. 9. The Anthropology of the State. A Reader (pp. 169–186). Malden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Molotch, H. L., Protess, D. L., & Gordon, M. T. (1987). The media-policy connections: Ecologies of news. In D. L. Paletz (Ed.), Political Communication Research: Approaches, Studies, Assessments (pp. 26–48). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

    Google Scholar 

  • Money-Kyrle, O. (2005). Professional ethical standards and journalists’ rights. In Article 19 (Ed.), Conference Report on Freedom and Accountability – Conference on Media Self-Regulation in South-East Europe. London: Article 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mouffe, C. (1993). The Return of the Political. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mouffe, C. (2000). The Democratic Paradox. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mouffe, C. (2005). On the Political: Thinking in Action. Abingdon & New York: Routledge

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, J. E. (1970). Presidential popularity from Truman to Johnson. The American Political Science Review, 64(1), 18–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murdock, G., Dahlgren, P., & Wieten, J. (2000). Television Across Europe: A Comparative Introduction. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Najem, T.P. (2005). Lebanon and Europe: The foreign policy of a penetrated state. In G. Nonneman (Ed.), Analyzing Middle East Foreign Policies and the Relationship with Europe (pp. 100–122). Oxford, New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newton, K., & van Deth, J.W. (2005). Foundations of Comparative Politics: Democracies of the Modern World. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, P. (2009). Comparative political communications: Common frameworks or Babelian confusion? Government and Opposition, 44(3), 321–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Novak, W. J. (2008). The myth of the “weak” American state. The American Historical Review, 113(3), 752–772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, R. (Ed.) (1976). Essays on the Crisis in Lebanon. London: Ithaca Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Padovani, C. (2005). A Fatal Attraction: Public Television and Politics in Italy. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papatheodorou, F. & Machin, D. (2003). The umbilical cord that was never cut: The post-dictatorial intimacy between the political elite and the mass media in Greece and Spain. European Journal of Communication, 18(1), 31–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, M.-J., & Curran, J. (Eds.) (2000). De-Westernizing Media Studies. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, T. E. & Donsbach, W. (1996). News decisions: Journalists as partisan actors. Political Communication, 13, 455–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, T. E. (2007). Review of comparing media systems: Three models of media and politics by Daniel Hallin and Paulo Mancini. Political Communication, 24(3), 329–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pawelka, P. (2002). Der Staat im Vorderen Orient über die Demokratie-Resistenz in einer globalisierten Welt. Leviathan, 30(4), 431–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintak, L., & Ginges, J. (2009). Inside the Arab newsroom. Journalism Studies, 10(2), 157–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puppis, M. (2009). Media regulation in small states. The International Communication Gazette, 71(1–2), 7–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puppis, M., & d’Haenens, L. (2012). Comparing media policy and regulation. In F. Esser & T. Hanitzsch (Eds.), Handbook of Comparative Communication Research (pp. 221–233). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reno, W. (1998). Warlord Politics and African States. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter, C., & Hafez, K. (2009). The image of Islam in German public service television programmes. Journal of Arab and Muslim Media Research, 2(3), 169–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rouger, A. (2009). What future for local news? The crisis of the French regional daily press. In B. Franklin (Ed.), The Future of Newspapers (pp. 193–202). Oxford, New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russ-Mohl, S. (2013). The coverage of terrorism and the Iraq war in the ‘issue-attention cycle’. In J. Seethaler, G.M. Karmasin, & R. Woehlert (Eds.), The Role of the Mass Media in Hostile Conflicts from World War I to the “War on Terror” (pp. 219–236). Bristol: Intellect.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakr, N. (2007). Arab Television Today. London: I.B. Tauris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakr, N. (2008). Gaps in the market: Insights from scholarly work on Arab media economics. In K. Hafez (Ed.), Arab Media. Power and Weakness (pp. 185–198). New York: Continuum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakr, N. (March 2006). Foreign support for media freedom advocacy in the Arab Mediterranean: Globalization from above or below? Mediterranean Politics, 11(1), 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salibi, K. (2003). A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. London: I.B. Tauris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schudson, M. (2002a). The news media as political institutions. Annual Review of Political Sciences, 5, 249–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schudson, M. (2002b). The Power of News. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, W. (1997). Changes of mass media and the public sphere. Javnost – The Public Journal 4(2), 57–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seaton, J. (1997). Broadcasting and the theory of public service. In. J. Curran, & J. Seaton, Power Without Responsibility: The Press and Broadcasting in Britain (5th ed., pp. 302–316). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seaton, J. (2005). Carnage and the Media: The Making and Breaking of News about Violence. London: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shoemaker, P.J, & Vos, T. P. (2009). Gatekeeping Theory. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sniderman, P., & Hagendoorn, L. (2007). When Ways of Life Collide: Multiculturalism and Its Discontents in the Netherlands. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sousa, H., & Costa e Silva, E. (2009). Keeping up appearances: Regulating media diversity in Portugal. The International Communication Gazette, 71(1–2), 89–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sreberny, A. (2000). Television, gender and democratisation in the Middle East’. In Curran and Park (Eds.), De-Westernising Media Studies (pp. 63–78). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sreberny, A. (2008). The analytic challenges of studying the Middle East and its evolving media environment. Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication, 1, 8–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stroud, N. (2011). Niche News: The Politics of News Choice. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Thomaß, B. (2000). How journalism ethics is taught around Europe: Three examples. In B. Pattyn (Ed.), Media Ethics: Opening Social Dialogue (pp. 375–392). Leuven: Peeters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomaß, B. (2007). Mediensysteme im internationalen Vergleich. Konstanz: UVK Verlagsgesellschaft.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thussu, D. K. (Ed.) (2009). Internationalizing Media Studies. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Traboulsi, F. (2007). A History of Modern Lebanon. London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Traboulsi, F. (2009). Foreword. In Z. Maasri, Off the Wall: Political Posters of the Lebanese Civil War (xvii-xxi). London: I.B. Tauris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Traquina, N. (1995). Portuguese television: The politics of savage deregulation. Media, Culture & Society, 17(2), pp. 223–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, T. (2004, July/August). My beef with big media: How government protects big media-and shuts out upstarts like me. Washington Weekly. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2004/0407.turner.html.

  • Voltmer, K. (2008). Comparing media systems in new democracies: East meets South meets West. Central European Journal of Communication, 1, 23–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, Stephen J. A. (2004). The Invention of Journalism Ethics: The Path to Objectivity and Beyond. Montreal-Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, D. (1998). Journalists around the world: Commonalities and differences. In D. Weaver (Ed.), The Global Journalist: News People Around the World (pp. 455–480). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, D., & Wilnat, L. (2012). Conclusions. In D. Weaver, & L. Wilnat (Eds.), The Global Journalist in the 21st Century (pp. 1–6). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, D., Beam, R., Brownlee, B., Voakes, P., & Wilhoit, C. (2006). The American Journalist in the 21st Century: US News People at the Dawn of a New Millennium. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, M. (1919/1999). Politik als Beruf. In E. Flitner (Ed.), Gesammelte Politische Schriften von Max Weber (pp. 396–450). Potsdam: Institut für Pädagogik der Universität Potsdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weibull, L. (2009). Introduction to Part II: The Northern European/democratic corporatist media model countries. In G. Terzis (Ed.), European Journalism Education (pp. 69–79). Bristol, Chicago, IL: Intellect.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. (2005). Base and superstructure in Marxist cultural theory. In R. Williams, Culture and Materialism: Selected Essays (pp. 31–49). London, New York: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wirth, W., & Kolb, S. (2004). Designs and methods of comparative political communication research. In F. Esser & B. Pfetsch (Eds.), Comparing Political Communication: Theories, Cases, and Challenges (pp. 87–111). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfsfeld, G. (1997). Media and Political Conflict: News from the Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woods, J. (2007). Democracy and the press: A comparative analysis of pluralism in the international print media. The Social Science Journal, 44(2), 213–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, M. (2010). The Ghosts of Martyrs Square: An Eyewitness Account of Lebanon’s Life Struggle. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaret, D. (1992). Religion, science, and printing in the public spheres in seventeenth-century England. In C. Calhoun, (Ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 109–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zelizer, B. (2000). Introduction to what journalism studies is? (Symposium Editor). Journalism, 1(1), 9–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Visiting Fellow, Centre for Lebanese Studies Academic Visitor Middle East Centre, St. Antony’s College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Sarah El-Richani

Authors
  1. Sarah El-Richani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Copyright information

© 2016 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

El-Richani, S. (2016). Theoretical Overview: Comparative Media Studies and the Lebanese State. In: The Lebanese Media. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60183-4_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation