Skip to main content

Organizational Factors in Burnout and Secondary Traumatic Stress

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Secondary Trauma and Burnout in Military Behavioral Health Providers

Abstract

This chapter targets the challenges associated with addressing secondary trauma and job burnout at the organizational level (including military, business, and community-based milieu), rather than the more common individual-level focus. A review of critical organizational structure and cultural factors that affect burnout and potentially STS are offered. Leadership style is also reviewed along with a number of individually based organizational factors (e.g., role conflict) that negatively impact job burnout. Finally, we offer a set of best practices for ameliorating STS and job burnout from an organizational perspective.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 19.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 24.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Arbour, S., Kwantes, C. T., Kraft, J. M., & Boglarsky, C. A. (2014). Person-organization fit: Using normative behaviors to predict workplace satisfaction, stress and intentions to stay. Journal of Organizational Culture, Communications & Conflict, 18(1), 41–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2014). Job demands-resources theory. In P. Y. Chen & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Work and wellbeing (Vol. III, pp. 37–64). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. M., Waldman, D. A., Avolio, B. J., & Bebb, M. (1987). Transformational leadership and the falling dominoes effect. Group & Organization Management, 12(1), 73–87. doi:10.1177/105960118701200106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjørnstad, A. L. (2011). Exploring network organization in military contexts: Effects of flatter structure and more decentralized processes. Military Psychology, 23(3), 315–331. doi:10.1080/08995605.2011.570595.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowditch, J. L., & Buono, A. F. (2005). A primer on organizational behavior (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. J., & Richardsen, A. R. (2001). Psychological burnout in organizations. Research and intervention. In R. T. Golembiewski (Ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior (2nd ed., Revised and Expanded, pp. 327–363). New York: Marcel Dekker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cieslak, R., Anderson, V., Bock, J., Moore, B. A., Peterson, A. L., & Benight, C. C. (2013). Secondary traumatic stress among providers working with the military: Prevalence and its work- and exposure-related correlates. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201(11), 917–925. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000034.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cooke, R. A., & Szumal, J. L. (1993). Measuring normative beliefs and shared behavioral expectations in organizations: The reliability and validity of the organizational culture inventory. Psychological Reports, 72(3c), 1299–1330. doi:10.2466/pr0.1993.72.3c.1299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cordes, C. L., & Dougherty, T. W. (1993). A review and an integration of research on job burnout. The Academy of Management Review, 18(4), 621–656. doi:10.2307/258593.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craig, C. D., & Sprang, G. (2010). Compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, and burnout in a national sample of trauma treatment therapists. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 23(3), 319–339. doi:10.1080/10615800903085818.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniels, A. K. (1969). The captive professional: Bureaucratic limitations in the practice of military psychiatry. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 10(4), 255–265. doi:10.2307/2948433.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, H. O., Mannion, R., Jacobs, R., Powell, A. E., & Marshall, M. N. (2007). Exploring the relationship between senior management team culture and hospital performance. Medical Care Research and Review, 64(1), 46–65. doi:10.1177/1077558706296240.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Jonge, J., van Vegchel, N., Shimazu, A., Schaufeli, W., & Dormann, C. (2010). A longitudinal test of the demand–control model using specific job demands and specific job control. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 17(2), 125–133. doi:10.1007/s12529-010-9081-1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Department of Defense. (2014). Military Health System Review – Final report (Final report to the Secretary of Defense). Retrieved from http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/140930_MHS_Review_Final_Report_Main_Body.pdf.

  • Department of Veterans Affairs. (2014). VA mental health services: public report. Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealth.va.gov/docs/Mental_Health_Transparency_Report_11-24-14.pdf

  • Engelhard, I. M., van den Hout, M. A., Weerts, J., Arntz, A., Hox, J. J., & McNally, R. J. (2007). Deployment-related stress and trauma in Dutch soldiers returning from Iraq prospective study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 191, 140–145. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.034884.

    Google Scholar 

  • Figley, C. R. (1978). Stress disorders among Vietnam veterans: Theory, research, and treatment. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finley, E. P., Bollinger, M., Noël, P. H., Amuan, M. E., Copeland, L. A., Pugh, J. A., et al. (2015). A national cohort study of the association between the polytrauma clinical triad and suicide-related behavior among US Veterans who served in Iraq and Afghanistan. American Journal of Public Health, 105(2), 380–387. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2014.301957.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, H. A., McGeary, C. A., Finley, E. P., McGeary, D. D., Ketchum, N. S., & Peterson, A. L. (2015). The influence of trauma and patient characteristics on provider burnout in VA post-traumatic stress disorder specialty programmes. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 1–16. doi:10.1111/papt.12057.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, H. A., McGeary, C. A., McGeary, D. D., Finley, E. P., & Peterson, A. L. (2014). Burnout in veterans health administration mental health providers in posttraumatic stress clinics. Psychological Services, 11(1), 50–59. doi:10.1037/a0035643.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goff, B. S. N., Crow, J. R., Reisbig, A. M. J., & Hamilton, S. (2007). The impact of individual trauma symptoms of deployed soldiers on relationship satisfaction. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(3), 344–353. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.3.344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, E. A., Zammuto, R. F., & Gifford, B. D. (2001). The competing values framework: Understanding the impact of organizational culture on the quality of work life. Organization Development Journal, 19(3), 58–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J. (2002). Managing behavior in organizations (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work redesign. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann, C. W., Meterko, M., Rosen, A. K., Zhao, S., Shokeen, P., Singer, S., & Gaba, D. M. (2009). Relationship of hospital organizational culture to patient safety climate in the Veterans Health Administration. Medical Care Research and Review, 66(3), 320–338. doi:10.1177/1077558709331812.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinkin, T. R., & Schriesheim, C. A. (2008). An examination of “nonleadership”: From laissez-faire leadership to leader reward omission and punishment omission. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1234–1248. doi:10.1037/a0012875.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hystad, S. W., Eid, J., & Brevik, J. I. (2011). Effects of psychological hardiness, job demands, and job control on sickness absence: A prospective study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(3), 265–278. doi:10.1037/a0022904.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, W. B., Bacho, R., Heim, M., & Ralph, J. (2006). Multiple-role dilemmas for military mental health care providers. Military Medicine, 171(4), 311–315.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational stress: Studies in role conflict and ambiguity. Oxford, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kane, T. D., & Tremble, T. J. (2000). Transformational leadership effects at different levels of the Army. Military Psychology, 12(2), 137–160. doi:10.1207/S15327876MP1202_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karasek Jr., R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285–308. doi:10.2307/2392498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kraft, H. S. (2007). Rule number two: Lessons I learned in a combat hospital (1st ed.). New York: Little, Brown and Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakey, B., Tardiff, T. A., & Drew, J. B. (1994). Negative social interactions: Assessment and relations to social support, cognition, and psychological distress. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13(1), 42–62. doi:10.1521/jscp.1994.13.1.42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, E. G., Hogan, N. L., & Jiang, S. (2010). A preliminary examination of the relationship between organisational structure and emotional burnout among correctional staff. The Howard Journal of Criminal justice, 49(2), 125–146. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2311.2010.00606.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, V. A., & Lambert, C. E. (2001). Literature review of role stress/strain on nurses: An international perspective. Nursing & Health Sciences, 3(3), 161–172. doi:10.1046/j.1442-2018.2001.00086.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R. T., & Ashforth, B. E. (1996). A meta-analytic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(2), 123–133. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.81.2.123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leiter, M. P. (1988). Burnout as a function of communication patterns A study of a multidisciplinary mental health team. Group & Organization Management, 13(1), 111–128. doi:10.1177/105960118801300112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leiter, M. P. (1991). The dream denied: Professional burnout and the constraints of human service organizations. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 32(4), 547–558. doi:10.1037/h0079040.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linnerooth, P. J., Mrdjenovich, A. J., & Moore, B. A. (2011). Professional burnout in clinical military psychologists: Recommendations before, during, and after deployment. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42, 87–93. doi:10.1037/a0022295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, K. B., Kroeck, K. G., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996). Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 385–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luby, C. C. (2012). Promoting military cultural awareness in an off-post community of behavioral and social support service providers. Advances in Social Work, 13(1), 67–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2(2), 99–113. doi:10.1002/job.4030020205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 397–422. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, B. A., & Reger, G. M. (2006). Clinician to frontline soldier: A look at the roles and challenges of army clinical psychologists in Iraq. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 395–403. doi:10.1002/jclp.20218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morse, G., Salyers, M. P., Rollins, A. L., Monroe-DeVita, M., & Pfahler, C. (2012). Burnout in mental health services: A review of the problem and its remediation. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 39(5), 341–352. doi:10.1007/s10488-011-0352-1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Park, H. I., Jacob, A. C., Wagner, S. H., & Baiden, M. (2014). Job control and burnout: A meta-analytic test of the conservation of resources model. Applied Psychology, 63(4), 607–642. doi:10.1111/apps.12008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patrician, P. A., Shang, J., & Lake, E. T. (2010). Organization determinants of work outcomes and quality care ratings among Army Medical Department registered nurses. Research in Nursing & Health, 33(2), 99–110. doi:10.1002/nur.20370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pietrzak, R. H., Johnson, D. C., Goldstein, M. B., Malley, J. C., Rivers, A. J., Morgan, C. A., & Southwick, S. M. (2010). Psychosocial buffers of traumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and psychosocial difficulties in veterans of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom: The role of resilience, unit support, and postdeployment social support. Journal of Affective Disorders, 120(1), 188–192. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.04.015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pithers, R. T. (1985). The roles of event contingencies and reinforcement in human autoshaping and omission responding. Learning and Motivation, 16(2), 210–237. doi:10.1016/0023-9690(85)90013-X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prosek, E. A., & Holm, J. M. (2014). Counselors and the military: When protocol and ethics conflict. The Professional Counselor, 4(2), 93–102. doi:10.15241/eap.4.2.93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rizzo, J. R., House, R. J., & Lirtzman, S. I. (1970). Role conflict and ambiguity in complex organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 150–163. doi:10.2307/2391486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenheck, R. A., & Fontana, A. F. (2007). Recent trends in VA treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder and other mental disorders. Health Affairs, 26(6), 1720–1727. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.26.6.1720.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rupert, P. A., & Morgan, D. J. (2005). Work setting and burnout among professional psychologists. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(5), 544–550. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.36.5.544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salyers, M. P., Rollins, A. L., Kelly, Y.-F., Lysaker, P. H., & Williams, J. R. (2011). Job satisfaction and burnout among VA and community mental health workers. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 40(2), 69–75. doi:10.1007/s10488-011-0375-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shoji, K., Bock, J., Cieslak, R., Zukowska, K., Luszczynska, A., & Benight, C. C. (2014). Cultivating secondary traumatic growth among healthcare workers: The role of social support and self-efficacy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(9), 831–846. doi:10.1002/jclp.22070.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shoji, K., Lesnierowska, M., Smoktunowicz, E., Bock, J., Luszczynska, A., Benight, C. C., & Cieslak, R. (2015). What comes first, job burnout or secondary traumatic stress? Findings from two longitudinal studies from the U.S. and Poland. PLOS One, 10(8), e0136730 .http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136730

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Skogstad, A., Einarsen, S., Torsheim, T., Aasland, M. S., & Hetland, H. (2007). The destructiveness of laissez-faire leadership behavior. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(1), 80–92. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.12.1.80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonnentag, S., Mojza, E. J., Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). Reciprocal relations between recovery and work engagement: The moderating role of job stressors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(4), 842–853. doi:10.1037/a0028292.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spector, P. E. (1998). A control theory of the job stress process. In C. L. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of organizational stress (pp. 153–169). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taris, T. W. (2006). Is there a relationship between burnout and objective performance? A critical review of 16 studies. Work & Stress, 20(4), 316–334. doi:10.1080/02678370601065893.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trevillion, K., Williamson, E., Thandi, G., Borschmann, R., Oram, S., & Howard, L. M. (2015). A systematic review of mental disorders and perpetration of domestic violence among military populations. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(9), 1329–1346. doi:10.1007/s00127-015-1084-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Army. (2010). Army Health Promotion, Risk Reduction and Suicide Prevention (HP/RR/SP) report (report 2010). Retrieved from http://csf2.army.mil/downloads/HP-RR-SPReport2010.pdf

  • Vallen, G. K. (1993). Organizational climate and burnout. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 34(1), 54–59. doi:10.1016/0010-8804(93)90031-D.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Doef, M., & Maes, S. (1998). The job demand-control(-support) model and physical health outcomes: A review of the strain and buffer hypotheses. Psychology & Health, 13(5), 909–936. doi:10.1080/08870449808407440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zazzali, J. L., Alexander, J. A., Shortell, S. M., & Burns, L. R. (2007). Organizational culture and physician satisfaction with dimensions of group practice. Health Services Research, 42(3, part 1), 1150–1176. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00648.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zopiatis, A., & Constanti, P. (2010). Leadership styles and burnout: Is there an association? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 22(3), 300–320. doi:10.1108/09596111011035927.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Copyright information

© 2016 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Stearns, S., Benight, C.C. (2016). Organizational Factors in Burnout and Secondary Traumatic Stress. In: Secondary Trauma and Burnout in Military Behavioral Health Providers. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95103-1_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics