Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Uncivil Society and Ethnic Militia in African Politics

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Palgrave Handbook of African Politics, Governance and Development

  • 2915 Accesses

Abstract

The end of the Cold War in Africa was marked by an upsurge in intra-state conflicts. This new theater of civil war in post-independence Africa was characterized by bloody civil war, death, wanton destruction and displacement of populations as witnessed in Somalia, Rwanda, Burundi, Sierra Leone, Liberia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and, later, Western Darfur—to mention but a few. Today, the resilient and ubiquitous presence of ethnic militia remains a central feature of African politics and society. Employing a historical-descriptive analytical approach, this chapter sheds light on an intriguing set of actors on the African political scene. Furthermore, the role of ethnic militias in shaping the African sociopolitical and economic spheres of influence is critically analyzed, before pertinent academic and policy-relevant recommendations are proffered.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Nzau, Mumo. “Inter-African Diplomacy and the Crises of the Post Cold War Period.” East African Journal of Humanities and Sciences. 7.2 (2007): 1–17.

  2. 2.

    Van Evera, Stephen. Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997: 1–23.

  3. 3.

    Anifowose Remi and Francis C. Enemuo. Elements of Politics. Ibadan: Malthouse, 1999: 281–310.

  4. 4.

    Goran, Hyden. “Governance and the Study of Politics.” In Governance and Politics in Africa. Edited by Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton. Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992: 7.

  5. 5.

    Nelson Kasfir. “The Conventional Notion of Civil Society: A Critique.” In Civil Society and Democracy in Africa: Critical Perspectives. Edited by Nelson Kasfir. London: Frank Cass, 1998: 1.

  6. 6.

    Ibid., 8–10.

  7. 7.

    Bratton, Michael 1989. “Beyond the State: Civil Society and Associational life in Africa.” World Politics 41 (1989): 407–430.

  8. 8.

    David J. Francis. “Introduction” in Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Menace?, edited by David J. Francis, 1–27. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing House, 2005: 1.

  9. 9.

    Betinna, Engels. “Mapping the Phenomenon of Militias and Rebels in Africa.” In Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants: Human Security and State Crises in Africa, edited by Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe, 69–87. Pretoria: Institute of Security Studies, 2010.

  10. 10.

    Ero, C. “Vigilantes, Civil Defence Forces and Militia Groups.” Conflict Trends 1 (2000): 25–29.

  11. 11.

    Hills, Alice. “Warlords, Militia and Conflict in Contemporary Africa: A Re-Examination of Terms.” Small Wars and Insurgencies 8.1 (1997): 35–1.

  12. 12.

    Collier, Paul and Anke Hoeffler. “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” Oxford Economic Papers 56: 563–595.

  13. 13.

    Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions. Cambridge MA: Cambridge University Press, 1979: 47.

  14. 14.

    Reno William W. Warlord Politics and the African State. Boulder : Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1998: 1–3.

  15. 15.

    Schraeder, Peter. African Politics and Society: A Mosaic of Transformation. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2004: 28.

  16. 16.

    Anne, Kubai. “Historical and Cultural Dimensions of Militia and Rebel Groups in Africa.” In Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants: Human Security and State Crises in Africa, edited by Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe, 45–67. Pretoria: Institute of Security Studies, 2010.

  17. 17.

    Schraeder. African Politics and Society: A Mosaic of Transformation, 32.

  18. 18.

    Hobley, C.W. A-Kamba and Other East African Tribes. London: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd, 1971: 95.

  19. 19.

    Schraeder. African Politics and Society: A Mosaic of Transformation, 30–32.

  20. 20.

    Gordon April and Gordon Donald. Understanding Contemporary Africa. London: Lynne Rienner, 1996.

  21. 21.

    Brantey, Cynthia. The Giriama and Colonial Resistance in Kenya, 1800–1920. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.

  22. 22.

    Mazrui Ali, A. “The Resurrection of the Warrior Tradition in African Political Culture” Journal of Modern African Studies 13.3 (1975): 67–84.

  23. 23.

    Ibid., 79.

  24. 24.

    Schraeder. African Politics and Society: A Mosaic of Transformation, 57–61.

  25. 25.

    Newbury, C. The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda 1860–1960. New York: Columbia University Press: 67.

  26. 26.

    Schraeder. African Politics and Society: A Mosaic of Transformation, 90–91.

  27. 27.

    Adams, Oloo. “Marginalisation and the Rise of Militia Groups in Kenya: The Mungiki and the Sabaot Land Defence Force.” In Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants: Human Security and State Crises in Africa, edited by Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe, 147–181. Pretoria: Institute of Security Studies, 2010.

  28. 28.

    Donald L. Gordon. “African Politics.” In. Understanding Contemporary Africa. Edited by April Gordon and Donald Gordon (4th Edition) London: Lynne Rienner, 2007: 60–83.

  29. 29.

    Nzau, Mumo. “On Political Leadership and Development in Africa: A Case Study of Kenya,” in the Kenya Studies Review 3.3 (December 2011): 87–111.

  30. 30.

    Chazan Naomi, Peter Lewis, Robert A. Mortimer, Donald Rothchild and Stephen J. Steadman. Politics and Society in Contemporary Africa. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers: 46–54.

  31. 31.

    Lowe Norman. Mastering Modern World History. New York, Macmillan, 1997: 477.

  32. 32.

    Karimi Joseph and Philip Ochieng. The Kenyatta Succession. Nairobi: Transafrica, 1980.

  33. 33.

    Rukooko, Byaruhanga. “Protected Civil War, Civil Militias and Political Transition in Uganda 1986.” Militia: Africa’s Intractable Security Menace (2005): 213–230.

  34. 34.

    Allen, Tim and Koen Vlassenroot. The Lord’s Resistance Army: Myth and Reality. New York: Zed Books Ltd, 2010: 18.

  35. 35.

    Tordoff. Government and Politics in Africa, 189–200.

  36. 36.

    Falola Toyin and Raphael Chijioke Njoku. War and Peace in Africa. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press: 28.

  37. 37.

    Allen, Chris. “Warfare, Endemic Violence and State Collapse in Africa.” Review of African Political Economy. 26.81 (1999): 367–384.

  38. 38.

    Gebrewold, Belachew. “Civil Militias and Militarization of Society in the Horn of Africa.” In Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Security Menace. Edited by David J. Francis, 187–209. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing House, 2005.

  39. 39.

    See, Kubai. “Historical and Cultural Dimensions of Militia and Rebel Groups in Africa,” 57.

  40. 40.

    See Tordoff. Government and Politics in Africa, 221–238.

  41. 41.

    Mumo, Nzau. “A Critical Examination of the Mombasa Republican Council (MRC).” In Contemporary Issues in Kenya History and the Challenges of Nationhood, edited by Samuel Nyanchoga and Maurice Amutabi, 357–370. Nairobi: Franciscan Kolbe Press, 2014.

  42. 42.

    Macharia, Munene. “State, Regional and International Responses to Militia and Rebel Activities in Africa.” In Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants: Human Security and State Crises in Africa, edited by Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe, 447–436. Pretoria: Institute of Security Studies, 2010.

  43. 43.

    Simiyu R. Romborah. Militarization of Resource Conflicts: The Case of Land-Based Conflict in the Mount Elgon Region of Western Kenya. Leiden, Netherlands: Institute of Security Studies, 2008.

  44. 44.

    Bamadus, Isiaka Alani. “Ethnic Militia Movements and the Crisis of Political Order in Post-military Nigeria.” Journal of Social Science 13.3 (2006): 191–198.

  45. 45.

    Tar, Usman. “Counter-Insurgents or Ethnic Vanguards? Civil Militia and the State Violence in Durfur Region, Western Sudan” In Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Security Menace?, edited by David J. Francis, 131–152. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing House, 2005.

  46. 46.

    Boas, Morten and Anne Hatloy. “Getting in, Getting Out: Militia Membership and Prospects for Re-integration in Post-War Liberia.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 46.1 (2008): 33–55.

  47. 47.

    Hoffman, Danny. “The Meaning of a Militia: Understanding the Civil Defence Forces of Sierra Leone.” African Affairs 106.425 (2007): 639–662.

  48. 48.

    Alie, Joe. “The Kamajor Militia in Sierra Leone: Liberators or Nihilists.” In Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Security Menace?, edited by David J. Francis, 51–65. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing House, 2005.

  49. 49.

    Macharia, Munene. “Mayi Mayi and Interahamwe Militias: Threat to Peace and Security in the Great Lakes Region.” In Civil Militia in Africa: Africa’s Intractable Menace?, edited by Francis J. David, 231–247. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005.

  50. 50.

    Wehrey, Fredric. “Libya’s Militia Menace.” Foreign Affairs (2012).

  51. 51.

    Faleye, Olukayode Abiodun. “The Emerging Militia Networks in West Africa” Vlassenroot, Koen. “Magic as identity maker: conflict and militia formation in Eastern Congo.” Displacing the State: Religion and Conflict in Neoliberal Africa (2012): 112–115.

References

  • Alie, Joe. 2005. The Kamajor Militia in Sierra Leone: Liberators or Nihilists. In Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Security Menace? ed. David J. Francis, 51–65. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, Chris. 1999. Warfare, Endemic Violence and State Collapse in Africa. Review of African Political Economy 26 (81): 367–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, Tim, and Koen Vlassenroot. 2010. The Lord’s Resistance Army: Myth and Reality. New York: Zed Books Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alozieuwa, Simeon H.O. 2014. Rebel Movements, Militia Groups and the Problematic of Contemporary African Political Leadership. Journal of African Foreign Affairs 1 (2): 9–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anifowose, Remi, and Francis C. Enemuo. 1999. Elements of Politics, 281–310. Ibadan: Malthouse.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anne, Kubai. 2010. Historical and Cultural Dimensions of Militia and Rebel Groups in Africa. In Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants: Human Security and State Crises in Africa, ed. Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe, 45–67. Pretoria: Institute of Security Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bamadus, Isiaka Alani. 2006. Ethnic Militia Movements and the Crisis of Political Order in Post-Military Nigeria. Journal of Social Science 13 (3): 191–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Betinna, Engels. 2010. Mapping the Phenomenon of Militias and Rebels in Africa. In Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants: Human Security and State Crises in Africa, ed. Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe, 69–87. Pretoria: Institute of Security Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boas, Morten, and Anne Hatloy. 2008. Getting in, Getting Out: Militia Membership and Prospects for Re-Integration in Post-War Liberia. Journal of Modern African Studies 46 (1): 33–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brantey, Cynthia. 1981. The Giriama and Colonial Resistance in Kenya, 1800–1920. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bratton, Michael. 1989. Beyond the State: Civil Society and Associational Life in Africa. World Politics 41 (1989): 407–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chazan, Naomi, Peter Lewis, Robert A. Mortimer, Donald Rothchild, and Stephen J. Steadman. 1999. Politics and Society in Contemporary Africa, 46–54. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collier, Paul, and Hoeffler Anke. 2004. Greed and Grievance in Civil War. Oxford Economic Papers 56: 563–595.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ero, Comfort. 2000. Vigilantes, Civil Defence Forces and Militia Groups. The Other Side of the Privatisation of Security in Africa. Conflict Trends 2000 (1): 25–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faleye, Olukayode Abiodun. The Emerging Militia Networks in West Africa. OSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 10, Issue 2 (Mar. - Apr. 2013), PP 61-66

    Google Scholar 

  • Falola, Toyin, and Raphael Chijioke Njoku. 2010. War and Peace in Africa. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francis, David J. 2005. Introduction. In Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Menace? ed. David J. Francis, 1–27. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebrewold, Belachew. 2005. Civil Militias and Militarization of Society in the Horn of Africa. In Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Security Menace, ed. David J. Francis, 187–209. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, Donald L. 2007. African Politics. In Understanding Contemporary Africa, ed. April Gordon and Donald Gordon, 60–83. London: Lynne Rienner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hills, Alice. 1997. Warlords, Militia and Conflict in Contemporary Africa: A Re-Examination of Terms. Small Wars and Insurgencies 8 (1): 35–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobley, Charles William. 1971. A-Kamba and Other East African Tribes. London: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, Danny. 2007. The Meaning of a Militia: Understanding the Civil Defence Forces of Sierra Leone. African Affairs 106 (425): 639–662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyden, Goran. 1992. Governance and the Study of Politics. In Governance and Politics in Africa, ed. Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, 1–26. Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jean-François, Bayart. 1986. Civil Society in Africa. In Political Domination in Africa, ed. Patrick Chabal. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karimi, Joseph, and Philip Ochieng. 1980. The Kenyatta Succession. Nairobi: Transafrica.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, Norman. 1997. Mastering Modern World History. New York: Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Macharia, Munene. 2005. Mayi Mayi and Interahamwe Militias: Threat to Peace and Security in the Great Lakes Region. In Civil Militia in Africa: Africa’s Intractable Menace? ed. Francis J. David, 231–247. Adelshot: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2010. State, Regional and International Responses to Militia and Rebel Activities in Africa. In Militias, Rebels and Islamist Militants: Human Security and State Crises in Africa, ed. Wafula Okumu and Augustine Ikelegbe, 447–436. Pretoria: Institute of Security Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazrui, Ali A. 1975. The Resurrection of the Warrior Tradition in African Political Culture. Journal of Modern African Studies 13 (3): 67–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newbury, Catherine. 1988. The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda 1860–1960. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nzau, Mumo. 2007. Inter-African Diplomacy and the Crises of the Post Cold War Period. East African Journal of Humanities and Sciences 7 (2): 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2011. On Political Leadership and Development in Africa: A Case Study of Kenya. Kenya Studies Review 3 (3): 87–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2014. A Critical Examination of the Mombasa Republican Council (MRC). In Contemporary Issues in Kenya History and the Challenges of Nationhood, ed. Samuel Nyanchoga and Maurice Amutabi, 357–370. Nairobi: Franciscan Kolbe Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reno, William W. 1998. Warlord Politics and the African State. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rukooko, Byaruhanga. 2005. Protected Civil War, Civil Militias and Political Transition in Uganda 1986. In Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Security Menace, ed. David J. Francis, 213–230. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shcraeder, Peter J. 2004. African Politics and Society: A Mosaic of Transformation. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simiyu, R. Romborah. 2008. Militarization of Resource Conflicts: The Case of Land Based Conflict in the Mount Elgon Region of Western Kenya. Leiden, Netherlands: Institute of Security Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skocpol, Theda. 1979. States and Social Revolutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tar, Usman. 2005. Counter-Insurgents or Ethnic Vanguards? Civil Militia and the State Violence in Durfur Region, Western Sudan. In Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Security Menace? ed. David J. Francis, 131–152. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tordoff, William. 2002. Government and Politics in Africa. Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Evera, Stephen. 1997. Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science. Itacha, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vlassenroot, Koen. 2012. Magic as Identity Maker: Conflict and Militia Formation in Eastern Congo. In Displacing the State: Religion and Conflict in Neoliberal Africa, ed. James Howard Smith and Rosalind I.J. Hackett, 112–115. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wehrey, F. Credric. 2012. Libya’s Militia Menace. Foreign Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Catholic University of Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya

    Mumo Nzau

  2. University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya

    Mumo Nzau

Authors
  1. Mumo Nzau
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Thabo Mbeki African Leadership Institute, University of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa

    Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba

  2. Department of History, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA

    Toyin Falola

Copyright information

© 2018 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Nzau, M. (2018). Uncivil Society and Ethnic Militia in African Politics. In: Oloruntoba, S., Falola, T. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of African Politics, Governance and Development. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95232-8_26

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation