Abstract
This chapter is a theoretical analysis of the interface between citizenship, the construction of identity, and the state. It examines evolving discourses on citizenship and rights as well as notions of nationhood in Africa and Sudan in particular and how these notions combine to exclude and include various categories of citizens or groups.
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Ted Robert Curr, Barbara Hartt, Monty G. Marshall, and James R. Scarritt, Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts, Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1993.
Deborah J. Yashar, Contesting Citizenship in Latin America: The Rise of Indigenous Movements and the Postliberal Challenges, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 32.
Donald L. Horowitz, “Democracy in Divided Societies: The Challenge of Ethnic Conflict,” Journal of Democracy, 4, 4, October, 1993, pp. 18–38
Iris Marion Young, “Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship,” Reprinted in Ronald Beined (ed.) Theorizing Citizenship, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995, pp. 175–208.
Judith N. Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991.
Cited in Said Adejumobi, “Identity, Citizenship and Conflict: The African Experience,” in W. Alade Fawde and Charles Ukeje (eds), The Crisis of the State and Regionalism in West Africa: Identity, Citizenship and Conflict, Dakar: CODESRIA, 2005, p. 21.
T. Oommen, Citizenship, Nationality and Ethnicity: Reconciling Competing Identities, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997, p. 23.
Jean Bodin, Method for Easy Comprehension of History, trans. Beatrice Reynolds, New York: Norton, 1945.
Charles Tilly, “Citizenship, Identity and Social History,” in Charles Tilly (ed.) Citizenship, Identity and Social History, International Review of Social History, Supplement, 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 7–11; Cited ir Adejumobi, “Identity, Citizenship and Conflict: The African Experience;’ p. 22.
Dipankar Gupta, “Survivors or Survivals — Reconciling Citizenship and Cultural Particularisms,” Economic and Political Weekly, 34, 33, August 14, 1999
Stephen N. Ndegwa, “Citizenship and Ethnicity: An Explanation of Two Transition Moments in Kenyan Politics,” American Political Science Review, 91, 2, September 1997 pp. 599–613.
Also see J. M. Barbalet, Citizenship, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988, p. 1.
Mamphela Ramphele, “Citizenship Challenges for South Africa’s Young Democracy,” Daedalus, winter, 2001, 130, 1, p. 3.
Roger Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992.
Linda K. Kerber, “The Meaning of Citizenship” The Journal of American History, December 1997, P. 834.
For more detailed studies see, Clifford Geertz, “The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States,” in Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa, New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963;
Harold R. Isaacs, “Basic Group Identity: The Idols of the Tribe,” in Nathan Glazer and Daniel P. Moynihan (eds), Ethnicity and Experience, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973;
Pierre L. van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon, New York: Elsevier, 1981;
John Stack, The Primordial Challenge: Ethnicity in the Contemporary World, New York: Greenwood Press, 1986.
The Rwanda genocide of 1994 was the product of complex colonial and postcolonial histories, as well as internal, regional, and international factors. For detailed studies on the subject see for example Mamdani, 2001, Philip Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families: Stories from Rwanda, New York: Picador, 1999,
and Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide. London: C. Hurst, 1998.
Sylvester Ogoh Alubo, Nigeria: Ethnic Conflict and Citizenship Crises in the Central Region, Ibadan: PEFS, 2006.
Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, London: Polity Press, 1983.
For interesting discussion on the distinction between nation state and state nations, see Alfred Stepan, Juan Linz, and Yogendra Yadav, Crafting State—Nations: India and other Multinational Democracies, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011.
Paul Gilroy, Against Race: Imagining Political Culture Beyond the Color Line, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001, p. 104.
Frederick Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa, London: Frank Cass, 1922, p. 75.
David Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing, and Imperial Administration, Durham: Duke University Press, 1993, p. 68.
Peter Ekeh, “Colonialism and the Two Publics in Nigeria: Theoretical Statement,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17, 1, 1975, pp. 91–112.
Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
For an interesting discussion on the question of citizenship and the role of tradition and exclusive nationalism, see John Akokpari, “‘You Don’t Belong Here’ Citizenship, the State and Africa’s Conflicts: Reflections on Ivory Coast,” in Alfred Nhema and Paul Tiyambe Zeleza (eds), The Roots of African Conflicts: The Causes & Cost, Oxford: James Currey, 2008, pp. 88–105.
G. F. W. Hegel, The Philosophy of History, trans J. Sibree, New York: Dover, 1956, p. 91.
V. Y. Mudimbe, The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988.
Kwame Anthony Appiah, In My Father’s House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
See Amir Idris, Conflict and Politics of Identity in Sudan, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, ch. 2.
For detailed studies on Sudan’s crisis of identity and its impact on society and politics, see Francis M. Deng, War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan, Washington DC, The Brookings Institutions, 1995;
Francis M. Deng, Dynamics of Identification, A Basis for National Integration in the Sudan, Khartoum, Khartoum University Press, 1974;
Francis, M. Deng, “War of Visions for the Nation,” in John O. Voll (ed.), Sudan: State and Society in Crisis, Bloomington, IN, Indiana University Press, 1991;
Jok Madut Jok, War and Slavery in Sudan, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001;
Amir Idris, Sudan’s Civil War: Slavery, Race and Formational Identities, Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2001.
William Deng and Joseph Oduho, The Problem of the Southern Sudan, London: London University Press, 1963;
Deng D. Ruay Akol, The Politics of Two Sudans, Uppsala: Nordiska Afrika institutet, 1994;
Dunstan Wai, The African-Arab Conflict in the Sudan, New York: Africana Pub. Co., 1981.
For some classical examples of this kind of scholarship see Harold A. MacMichael, A History of the Arabs in the Sudan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922;
Mohammed Omer Bashir, The Southern Sudan: Background to Conflict, London: Hurst, 1968;
William Deng and Oduho, Problem of the Southern Sudan; Yusuf F. Hasan, The Arabs and the Sudan, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967; Ruay Akol, Politics of Two Sudans; Wai, The African-Arab Conflict in the Sudan.
Ahmed A. Sikainga, “Citizenship and Identity in Post-Secession Northern Sudan,” Association of Concerned Africa Scholars, Bulletin, 86, November 2011, pp. 11–19.
Much of the debate about race, ethnicity, and nation has been couched in terms of the theory of racialization. See for instance, Robert Miles, Racism and Migrant Labour, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982;
Robert Miles, “Recent Marxist Theories of Nationalism and the Issue of Racism,” British Journal of Sociology, 38, 1987, pp. 24–43;
J. Susan Smith, The Politics of “Race” and Resistance: Citizenship, Segregation, and White Supremacy in Britain, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991;
J. Solomos, Race and Racism in Contemporary Britain, Houndmills: Macmillan Education, 1989.
A. Montagu, Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race, New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.
C. Guillaumin, Racism, Sexism, Power and Ideology, London and New York: Routledge, 1995, p. 78.
Rupert Taylor and Don Foster, “Advancing Non-Racialism in Post-Aparthei South Africa,” in Mai Palmberg (ed.), National Identity and Democracy in Africa, Sweden and South Africa: Capture Press, 1999, p. 330.
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© 2013 Amir Idris
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Idris, A. (2013). Citizenship, Identity, and the State: The Theoretical Interface. In: Identity, Citizenship, and Violence in Two Sudans: Reimagining a Common Future. Palgrave Pivot, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137371799_2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137371799_2
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