Abstract
The widespread acceptance of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing by clinicians as evidence of prostatic pathology and recognition that elevated levels in serum often precede overt disease has permitted a much earlier identification of patients with prostatic epithelial changes, particularly cancer. Prostate cancer patients thus identified are very often asymptomatic with clinically benign prostates on digital rectal examination.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Presti, J. C. Jr, Chang, J. J., Bhargava, V., and Shinohara, K. (2000) The optimal systematic prostate biopsy scheme should include 8 rather than 6 biopsies: Results of a prospective clinical trial. J. Urol. 163, 163ā166.
Brossner, C., Bayer, G., Madersbacher, S., Kuber, W., Klingler, C., and Pycha, A. (2000) Twelve prostate biopsies detect significant cancer volumes (>0.5 mL). BJU Int. 85, 705ā707.
Naughton, C. K., Miller, D. C., Mager, D. E., Ornstein, D. K., and Catalona, W. J. (2000) A prospective randomized trial of 6 versus 12 prostate biopsy cores: Impact on cancer detection. J. Urol. 164, 388ā392.
Partin, A. W., Kattan, M. W., Subong, E. N., Walsh, P. C., Wojno, K. J., Oesterling, J. E., Scardino, P. T. and Pearson, J. D. (1997) Combination of prostate-specific antigen, clinical stage, and Gleason score to predict pathological stage of localized prostate cancer. A multi-institutional update. JAMA 277, 1445ā1451.
Catalona, W. J., Partin, A. W., Slawin, K. M., Brawer, M. K., Flanigan, R. C., Patel, A., et al. (1998) Percentage of free prostate-specific antigen to enhance differentiation of prostate cancer from benign prostatic disease: A prospective multicenter clinical trial. JAMA 279, 1542ā1547.
Djavan, B., Zlotta, A. R., Byttebier, G., Shariat, S., Omar, M., Schulman, C. C., and Marberger, M. (1998) Prostate specific antigen density of the transition zone for early detection of prostate cancer. J. Urol. 160, 411ā419.
Djavan, B., Zlotta, A., Kratzik, C., Remzi, M., Seitz, C., Schulman, C. C., and Marberger, M. (1999) PSA, PSA density, density of transition zone, free/total PSA ratio & PSA velocity for early detection of prostate cancer in men with serum PSA 2.5 to 4.0 ng/ml. Urology 54, 517ā522.
Djavan, B., Zlotta, A. R., Remzi, M., Ghawidel, K., Bursa, B., Hruby, S., et al. (1999) Total & transition zone prostate volume and age: how do they affect the utility of PSA-based diagnostic parameters for early prostate cancer detection? Urology 54, 846ā852.
Gardiner, R. A., Samaratunga, M. L. T. H., Gwynne, R. A., Clague, A., Seymour, G. J. S., and Lavin, M. F. (1996) Abnormal prostatic cells in ejaculates from men with prostatic cancerāa preliminary report. Br. J. Urol. 78, 414ā418.
Gardiner, R. A., Samaratunga, M. L. T. H., Rohde, P., Clements, J. A., Hyland, V., and Lavin, M. F. (1997) Re: malignant cytological washings from radical prostatectomy specimens: A possible mechanism for local recurrence of prostate cancer following surgical treatment of organ confined disease (letter). J. Urol. 158, 889.
Barren, R. J. III, Holmes, E. H., Boynton, A. L., Gregorakis, A., Abdel-Aziz, A., Cobb, O. E., et al. (1998) Method for identifying prostate cells in semen using flow cytometry. Prostate 36, 181ā188.
Clements, J. A., Rohde, P., Allen, V., Hyland, V. J., Samaratunga, M. L. T. H., Tilley, W. D., et al. (1999) Molecular detection of prostate cells in ejaculate and urethral washings in men with suspected prostate cancer. J. Urol. 61, 1337ā1343.
Shen, R., Su, Z. Z., Olsson, C. A., and Fisher, P. B. (1995) Identification of the human prostatic carcinoma oncogene PTI-1 by rapid expression cloning and differential RNA display. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 6778ā6782.
Li, S. L., Goko, H., Xu, Z. D., Kimura, G., Sun, Y., Kawachi, M. H., et al. (1998) Insulin like growth factor 1 in human prostate, breast, bladder & paraganglioma tumors. Cell Tissue Res. 291, 469ā479.
Mantzoros, C. S., Tzonou, A., Signorello, L. B., Stampfer, M., Trichopoulos, D., and Adami, H. O. (1997) Insulin like growth factor 1 in relation to CaP and BPH. Br. J. Cancer 76, 1115ā1118.
Bentley, H., Hambdy, F. C., Hart, K. A., Seid, J. M., Williams, J. L., Johnstone, D., and Russell, R. G. (1992) Expression of bone morphognenetic proteins in human prostatic adenocarcinoma and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Br. J. Cancer 66, 1159ā1163.
Harris, S. E., Harris, M. A, Mahy, P., Wozney, J., Feng, J. Q., and Mundy, G. R. (1994) Expression of bone morphogenetic protein messenger RNAs by normal rat and human prostate and prostate cancer cells. Prostate 24, 204ā211.
Hambdy, F. C., Autzen, P., Robinson, M. C., Home, C. H., Neal, D. E., and Robson, C. N. (1997) Immunolocalization and messenger RNA expression of bone morpho-genetic protein-6 in human benign and malignant prostatic tissue. Cancer Res. 57, 4427ā4431.
Barnes, J., Anthony, C. T., Wall, N., and Steiner, M. S. (1995) Bone morpho-genetic protein-6 expression in normal and malignant prostate. World J. Urol. 13, 337ā343.
Sinisi, A. A., Bellastella, A., Prezioso, D., Nicchio, M. R., Lotti, T., Salvatore, M., et al. (1997) Different expression patterns of somatostatin receptor subtypes in cultured epithelial cells from human normal prostate and prostate cancer. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82, 2566ā2569.
Burger, M..J., Mould, M., Samaratunga, H.M., Clements, J., Lavin, M.F., and Gardiner, R.A. (2002) Expression analysis of Ī“-catenin and prostate specific membrane antigen; their potential as diagnostic markers for Prostate Cancer. Int. J. Cancer 100, 228ā237.
Rittenhouse, H. G., Finlay, J. A., Mikolajczyk, S. D., and Partin A. W. (1998) Human kallikrein 2 (hK2) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA): Two closely related, but distinct, kallikreins in the prostate. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 35, 275ā368.
Lilja, H., Oldbring, J., Rannevik, G., and Laurell, C.-B. (1987) Seminal vesicle-secreted proteins anda their reactions during gelation and liquefaction of human semen. J. Clin. Invest. 80, 281ā285.
Christensson, A. and Lilja, H. (1994) Complex formation between protein C inhibitor and prostate specific antigen in vitro and in human semen. Eur. J. Biochem. 220, 45ā53.
Otto, A., Bar, J., and Birkenmeier, G. (1998) Prostate-specific antigen forms complexes with human-Ī±2-macroglobulin and binds to the-Ī±2-macroglobulin receptor-related protein. J. Urol. 159, 297ā303.
Permanetter, W. and Meister, P. (1984) Distribution of lysozyme (muraminidase) and (1-antichymotrypsin in normal and neoplastic epithelial tissues: a survey. Acta Histochem. 74, 173ā179.
Bjork, T., Hulkko, S., Bjartell, A., di Santāgnese, A., Abrahamsson, P.-A., and Lilja H. (1994) Ī±1-antichymotrypsin production in PSA-producing cells is common in prostate cancer but rare in benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urology 43, 427ā433.
Qian, Y., Sensibar, J. A., Zelner, D. J., Schaeffer, A. J., Finlay, J. A., Rittenhouse, H. G., and Lee, C. (1997) Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis detects prostate-specific antigen-Ī±1-antichymotrypsin complex in serum but not prostatic fluid. Clin. Chem. 43, 352ā359.
Clements, J. A., Merritt, T., Devoss, K., Swanson, C., Hamlyn, L., Scells, B., et al. (2000) Inactive free:total prostate specific antigen ratios in ejaculate from men with suspected and known prostate cancer, compared with young control men. BJU Int. 86, 453ā458.
Wang, Z., Ramin, S. A., Tsai, C., Lui, P., Herbert, P. J., Kyeyune-Nyombi, E., et al. (2001) Detection of telomerase activity in prostatic fluid specimens. Urol. Oncol. 6, 4ā9.
Kim, N. W., Piatyszek, M. A., Prowse, K. R., Harley, C. B., West, M. D., Ho, P. L., et al. (1994) Specific association of human telomerase activity with immortal cells and cancer. Science 266, 2011ā2015.
Suh, C. I., Shanafelt, T., May, D. J., Shroyer, K. R., Bobak, J. B., Crawford, E. D., et al. (2000) Comparison of telomerase and GSTP1 promoter methylation in ejaculate, potential screening for prostate cancer. Mol. Cell Probes 14, 211ā217.
Lynch, M. J. and Nicholson, J. K. (1997) Proton MRS of human prostatic fluid: Correlations between citrate, spermine and myo-inositol levels and change with disease. Prostate 3, 248ā255.
Liu, H., Moy, P., Kim, S., Xia, Y., Rajasekaran, A., Navarro, V., et al. (1997) Monoclonal antibodies to the extracellular domain of prostate-specific membrane antigen also react with tumor vascular endothelium. Cancer Res. 57, 3629ā3634.
Chang, S. S., Reuter, V. E., Heston, W. D., Bander, N. H., Grauer, L. S., and Gaudin, P. B. (1999) Five different anti-prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) antibodies confirm PSMA expression in tumor-associated neovasculature. Cancer Res. 59, 3192ā3198.
Silver, D. A., Pellicer, I., Fair, W. R., Heston, W. D., and Cordon-Cardo, C. (1997) Prostate-specific membrane antigen expression in normal and malignant human tissues. Clin. Cancer Res. 3, 81ā85.
Jassim, A. and Festenstein, H. (1987) Immunological and morphological characterisation of nucleated cells other than sperm in semen of oligospermic donors. J. Reprod. Immunol. 11, 77ā89.
Sharifi, R., Rhee, H., Shaw, M., Nagubadi, S., Ray, V., and Guinan, P. (1983) Evaluation of cytologic techniques for diagnosis of prostatic cancer. Urology 21, 417ā420.
Berry, S. J., Coffey, D. S., Walsh, P. C., and Ewing, L. L. The development of human benign prostatic hyperplasia with age. J. Urol. 132, 474ā479.
Israeli, R. S., Powell, C. T., Fair, W. R., and Heston, W. D. (1993) Molecular cloning of a complementary DNA encoding a prostate-specific membrane antigen. Cancer Res. 227, 227ā230.
Wright, G. L. Jr, Beckett, M. L., Lipford, G. B., Haley, C. L., and Schellhammer, P. F. (1991) A novel prostate carcinoma-associated glycoprotein complex (PAC) recognized by monoclonal antibody TURP-27. Int. J. Cancer 47, 717ā725.
Kim, Y. D., Robinson, D. Y., and Tomita, J. T. (1888) Monoclonal antibody PR92 with restricted specificity for tumor-associated antigen of prostate and breast carcinoma. Cancer Res. 48, 4543ā4548.
Emmert-Buck, M. R., Strausberg, R. L., Krizman, D. B., Bonaldo, M. F., Bonner, R. F., Bostwick, D. G., et al. (2000) Molecular profiling of clinical tissue specimens: feasibility and applications. Am. J. Pathol. 156, 1109ā1115.
Foster, C. S., Bostwick, D. G., Bonkoff, H., Damber, J.-E., van der Kwast, T., Montironi, R., and Sakr, W. A. (2000) Cellular and molecular pathology of prostate cancer precursors: WHO Consensus Conference June 8ā9 2000. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 34, 18ā43.
Liu, X. H., Kirschenbaum, A., Yao, S., Stearns, M. E., Holland, J. F., Claffey, K., and Levine, A. C. (1999) Upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor by cobalt chloride-simulated hypoxia is mediated by persistent induction of cyclooxy-genase-2 in a metastatic human prostate cancer cell line. Clin. Exp. Metastasis 17, 687ā694.
Chen, H. J., Treweeke, A. T., Ke, Y. Q., West, D. C., and Toh, C. H. (2000) Angio-genically active vascular endothelial growth factor is over-expressed in malignant human and rat prostate carcinoma cells. Br. J. Cancer 82, 1694ā1701.
Collett, G. P., Betts, A. M., Johnson, M. I., Pulimood, A. B., Cook, S., Neal, D. E., et al. (2000) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha is an androgen-responsive gene and is highly expressed in prostatic adenocarcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 6, 3241ā3248.
Tavtigian, S. V., Simard, J., Teng, D. H., Abtin, V., Baumgard, M., Beck, A., et al. (2001) A candidate prostate cancer susceptibility gene at chromosome 17p. Nat. Genet. 27, 172ā180.
de Kok, J.B., Verhaegh, G.W., Roelofs, R.W., Hessels, D., Kiemeney, B.A., Aalders, T.W., et al. (2002) DD3 (PCA3), a very sensitive and specific marker to detect prostate cancer. Cancer Res 62, 2695ā2698.
Nelson, J.B., Chan-Tack, K., Hedican, S.P., Magnuson, S.R., Opgenorth, T.J., Bova, G.S., Simons, J. W. (1996) Endothelin-1 production and decreased endothelin B receptor expression in advanced prostate cancer. Cancer Res 56, 663ā668.
Gohji, K., Kitazawa, S., Tamada, H., Katsuoka, Y., and Nakajima, M. (2001) Expression of endothelin receptor A associated with prostate cancer progression. J. Urol. 165, 1033ā1036.
Holgersson, J., Pimlott, W., Samuelsson, B. E., and Breimer, M. E. (1989) Electron ionization mass spectrometry for sequence analysis of glycosphingolipid mixtures by fractional evaporation in the ion source. Mass spectrometric evidence for an eleven-sugar glycolipid. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 3, 400ā404.
Costello, C. E. and Vath, J. E. (1990) Tandem mass spectrometry of glycolipids. Meth. Enzymol. 193, 738ā768.
Dell, A. (1990) Preparation and desorption mass spectometry of permethyl and peracetyl derivatives of oligosaccharides. Meth. Enzymol. 193, 647ā660.
Favretto, D., Seraglia, R., Traldi, P., Curcuruto, O., and Hamdan, M. (1994) Electrospray vs. matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization I. Some examples in the protein field. Organic Mass Spectrom. 29, 526ā532.
Perreult, H. and Costello, C. E. (1994) Liquid secondary ionization, tandem and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometric characterization of glycosphingolipid derivatives. Organic Mass Spectrom. 29, 720ā735.
Costello, L. C. and Franklin, L. B. (1991) Concepts of citrate production secretion by the prostate. 1. Metabolic relationships. Prostate 18, 25ā46.
Costello, L. C., Franklin, R. B., and Narayan, P. (1999) Review article: citrate in the diagnosis of prostate cancer. Prostate 38, 237ā245.
Cooper, J. F. and Imheld, H. (1959) The role of citric acid in the physiology of the prostate; a preliminary report. J. Urol. 81, 157ā163.
Marberger, H., Marberger, E., Mann, T., and Lutwak-Mann, C. (1962) Citric acid in human prostatic secretion and metastasizing cancer of the prostate gland. Br. Med. J. 1, 835ā836.
Cooper, J. E. and Farid, I. (1964) The role of citric acid in the physiology of the prostate. Lactic/citrate ratios in benign and malignant prostatic homogenates as an index of prostatic malignancy. J. Urol. 92, 533ā536.
Scheibler, M. R., Miyamoto, K. K., White, M., Maygarden, S. J., and Mohler, J. L. (1993) In vivo high resolution 1H spectroscopy of the human prostate: Benign prostatic hyperplasia, normal peripheral zone and adenocarcinoma. Magn. Reson. Med. 29, 285ā291.
Cornel, E. B., Smits, G. A. H. J., Oosterhof, G. O. N., Karthaus, H. F. M., Debruyne, F. M. J., Schalken, J. A., and Heerschap, A. (1993) Characterization of human prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia and normal prostate by in-vitro 1H and 3P magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J. Urol. 150, 2019ā2024.
Kavanagh, J. P (1985) Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, citrate and chloride content of human prostatic and seminal fluid. J. Reprod. Fertil. 75, 35ā41.
Heerschap, A., Jager, G. J., van der Graaf, M., Barentz, J. O., De La Rosette, J. J., Oosterhof, G. O. N., et al. (1997) In vivo proton spectroscopy reveals altered metabolite content in malignant prostate tissue. Anticancer Res. 17, 1455ā1460.
Anderson, R. U. and Fair, W. R. (1976) Physical and chemical determinations of prostatic secretion in benign hyperplasia, prostatitis and adenocarcinoma. Invest. Urol. 14, 133ā140.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
Ā© 2003 Humana Press Inc.
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Gardiner, R.A., Burger, M., Clements, J.A., Lavin, M.F. (2003). Realizing the Potential of Ejaculate/Seminal Fluid in Detecting and Predicting Natural History. In: Russell, P.J., Jackson, P., Kingsley, E.A. (eds) Prostate Cancer Methods and Protocols. Methods in Molecular Medicineā¢, vol 81. Springer, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-372-0:199
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-372-0:199
Publisher Name: Springer, Totowa, NJ
Print ISBN: 978-0-89603-978-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-372-9
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols