Abstract
Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) are a relatively rare and heterogeneous group, comprising about 2% of all malignancies with almost 2/3 of NETs being nonfunctional tumors. The incidence increases with age. Most non-appendix, non-pancreas NETs are seen in age over 60 years. Diagnosis of NET is often challenging and requires careful clinical history along with laboratory tests and an array of imaging procedures. While functioning NETs could present with symptoms related to hormone hypersecretion, non-functioning NETs often present incidentally or due to mass effect. Surgical resection remains the treatment of choice even with metastatic disease. The newer diagnostic and treatment modalities offer potential treatment and prolong disease-free survival for patients with improvement in quality of life.
References
Akerstrom G, Hellman P. Surgery on neuroendocrine tumours. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;21:87–109.
American Cancer Society. Pancreatic cancer survival by stage. http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/PancreaticCancer/DetailedGuide/pancreatic-cancer-survival-rates. 2012
Basu B, Sirohi B, Corrie P. Systemic therapy for neuroendocrine tumours of gastroenteropancreatic origin. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2010;17:R75–90.
Bosman FT, Carneiro F, Hruban RH, Theise ND. Tumours of the pancreas. Lyon: IARC Press; 2010.
Boukhman MP, et al. Localization of insulinomas. Arch Surg. 1999;134:818–22; discussion 822–813.
Boyce M, Thomsen L. Gastric neuroendocrine tumors: prevalence in Europe, USA, and Japan, and rationale for treatment with a gastrin/CCK2 receptor antagonist. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2015;50:550–9.
Brizi MG, et al. High resolution spiral computed tomography of the pancreas. Rays. 2001;26:111–5.
Cadiot G, et al. Preoperative detection of duodenal gastrinomas and peripancreatic lymph nodes by somatostatin receptor scintigraphy. Groupe D’etude Du Syndrome De Zollinger-Ellison. Gastroenterology. 1996;111:845–54.
Campana D, et al. Chromogranin A: is it a useful marker of neuroendocrine tumors? J Clin Oncol. 2007;25:1967–73.
Chamberlain RS, et al. Hepatic neuroendocrine metastases: does intervention alter outcomes? J Am Coll Surg. 2000;190:432–45.
Chatzipantelis P, et al. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration cytology of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: a study of 48 cases. Cancer. 2008;114:255–62.
Corleto VD, Delle Fave G, Jensen RT. Molecular insights into gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumours: importance and recent advances. Dig Liver Dis. 2002;34:668–80.
Dabizzi E, Panossian A, Raimondo M. Management of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol. 2010;56:467–79.
de Herder WW. Biochemistry of neuroendocrine tumours. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;21:33–41.
Doppman JL, et al. Insulinomas: localization with selective intraarterial injection of calcium. Radiology. 1991;178:237–41.
Doppman JL, et al. Localization of insulinomas to regions of the pancreas by intra-arterial stimulation with calcium. Ann Intern Med. 1995;123:269–73.
Dromain C, et al. Detection of liver metastases from endocrine tumors: a prospective comparison of somatostatin receptor scintigraphy, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:70–8.
Duerr EM, Chung DC. Molecular genetics of neuroendocrine tumors. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;21:1–14.
Duran I, et al. A phase II clinical and pharmacodynamic study of temsirolimus in advanced neuroendocrine carcinomas. Br J Cancer. 2006;95:1148–54.
Edge SB, Compton CC. The American Joint Committee on Cancer: the 7th edition of the AJCC cancer staging manual and the future of TNM. Ann Surg Oncol. 2010;17:1471–4.
Falconi M, et al. Well-differentiated pancreatic nonfunctioning tumors/carcinoma. Neuroendocrinology. 2006;84:196–211.
Fendrich V, Waldmann J, Bartsch DK, Langer P. Surgical management of pancreatic endocrine tumors. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2009;6:419–28.
Fidler JL, Johnson CD. Imaging of neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas. Int J Gastrointest Cancer. 2001;30:73–85.
Fink G, et al. Pulmonary carcinoid: presentation, diagnosis, and outcome in 142 cases in Israel and review of 640 cases from the literature. Chest. 2001;119:1647–51.
Forrer F, Valkema R, Kwekkeboom DJ, de Jong M, Krenning EP. Neuroendocrine tumors. Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;21:111–29.
Fottner C, et al. In vivo molecular imaging of somatostatin receptors in pancreatic islet cells and neuroendocrine tumors by miniaturized confocal laser-scanning fluorescence microscopy. Endocrinology. 2010;151:2179–88.
Frucht H, et al. Detection of duodenal gastrinomas by operative endoscopic transillumination. A prospective study. Gastroenterology. 1990;99:1622–7.
Gibril F, Jensen RT. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome revisited: diagnosis, biologic markers, associated inherited disorders, and acid hypersecretion. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2004;6:454–63.
Gibril F, Venzon DJ, Ojeaburu JV, Bashir S, Jensen RT. Prospective study of the natural history of gastrinoma in patients with MEN1: definition of an aggressive and a nonaggressive form. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:5282–93.
Gill GV, Rauf O, MacFarlane IA. Diazoxide treatment for insulinoma: a national UK survey. Postgrad Med J. 1997;73:640–1.
Goetz M, Kiesslich R. Advances of endomicroscopy for gastrointestinal physiology and diseases. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2010;298:G797–806.
Goudet P, et al. Risk factors and causes of death in MEN1 disease. A GTE (Groupe d’Etude des Tumeurs Endocrines) cohort study among 758 patients. World J Surg. 2010;34:249–55.
Grant CS. Surgical management of malignant islet cell tumors. World J Surg. 1993;17:498–503.
Grant CS. Insulinoma. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;19:783–98.
Gray’s anatomy: the anatomical basis of clinical practice. (ed. DSc, S.S.P.) 1562 (Elsevier, 2015).
Gregoire E, Le Treut YP. Liver transplantation for primary or secondary endocrine tumors. Transpl Int. 2010;23:704–11.
Halperin DM, Kulke MH. Management of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Gastroenterol Clin N Am. 2012;41:119–31.
Hellman P, et al. Surgical strategy for large or malignant endocrine pancreatic tumors. World J Surg. 2000;24:1353–60.
Hellman P, Hennings J, Akerstrom G, Skogseid B. Endoscopic ultrasonography for evaluation of pancreatic tumours in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Br J Surg. 2005;92:1508–12.
Hill JS, et al. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: the impact of surgical resection on survival. Cancer. 2009;115:741–51.
Hirshberg B, et al. Blind distal pancreatectomy for occult insulinoma, an inadvisable procedure. J Am Coll Surg. 2002;194:761–4.
Hobday TJ, Rubin J, Holen K, Picus J, Donehower R, Marschke R, Maples W, Lloyd R, Mahoney M, Erlichman C. MC044h, a phase II trial of sorafenib in patients (pts) with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors (NET): a Phase II Consortium (P2C) study. In: 2007 ASCO annual meeting proceedings, vol. 25, p. 4504. J Clin Oncol, 2007.
Huai JC, et al. Localization and surgical treatment of pancreatic insulinomas guided by intraoperative ultrasound. Am J Surg. 1998;175:18–21.
Imamura M, et al. New pancreas-preserving total duodenectomy technique. World J Surg. 2005;29:203–7.
Imamura M, Komoto I, Ota S. Changing treatment strategy for gastrinoma in patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. World J Surg. 2006;30:1–11.
Ito H, et al. Surgery and staging of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: a 14-year experience. J Gastrointest Surg. 2010;14:891–8.
Jameson JL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Loscalzo J. Harrison’s principles of internal medicine. United States of America: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2012.
Jensen RT, et al. Gastrinoma (duodenal and pancreatic). Neuroendocrinology. 2006;84:173–82.
Jensen RT, Berna MJ, Bingham DB, Norton JA. Inherited pancreatic endocrine tumor syndromes: advances in molecular pathogenesis, diagnosis, management, and controversies. Cancer. 2008;113:1807–43.
Kaltsas GA, Besser GM, Grossman AB. The diagnosis and medical management of advanced neuroendocrine tumors. Endocr Rev. 2004;25:458–511.
Kato M, et al. Curative resection of microgastrinomas based on the intraoperative secretin test. World J Surg. 2000;24:1425–30.
King CM, Reznek RH, Dacie JE, Wass JA. Imaging islet cell tumours. Clin Radiol. 1994;49:295–303.
Klimstra DS. Nonductal neoplasms of the pancreas. Mod Pathol. 2007;20(Suppl 1):S94–112.
Klimstra DS, et al. Pathology reporting of neuroendocrine tumors: application of the Delphic consensus process to the development of a minimum pathology data set. Am J Surg Pathol. 2010;34:300–13.
Kloppel G, Perren A, Heitz PU. The gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine cell system and its tumors: the WHO classification. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1014:13–27.
Konda VJ, et al. First assessment of needle-based confocal laser endomicroscopy during EUS-FNA procedures of the pancreas (with videos). Gastrointest Endosc. 2011;74:1049–60.
Kouvaraki MA, et al. Management of pancreatic endocrine tumors in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. World J Surg. 2006;30:643–53.
Krausz Y, et al. SPECT/CT hybrid imaging with 111In-pentetreotide in assessment of neuroendocrine tumours. Clin Endocrinol. 2003;59:565–73.
Krenning EP, et al. Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy with [111In-DTPA-D-Phe1]- and [123I-Tyr3]-octreotide: the Rotterdam experience with more than 1000 patients. Eur J Nucl Med. 1993;20:716–31.
Kulke MH, et al. NANETS treatment guidelines: well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors of the stomach and pancreas. Pancreas. 2010;39:735–52.
Kulke MH, et al. Future directions in the treatment of neuroendocrine tumors: consensus report of the National Cancer Institute Neuroendocrine Tumor clinical trials planning meeting. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29:934–43.
Kwekkeboom DJ, et al. Treatment with the radiolabeled somatostatin analog [177 Lu-DOTA 0,Tyr3]octreotate: toxicity, efficacy, and survival. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:2124–30.
Lamberts SW, Bakker WH, Reubi JC, Krenning EP. Somatostatin-receptor imaging in the localization of endocrine tumors. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1246–9.
Langer P, et al. Prospective evaluation of imaging procedures for the detection of pancreaticoduodenal endocrine tumors in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. World J Surg. 2004;28:1317–22.
Lawrence B, et al. The epidemiology of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am. 2011;40:1–18. , vii.
Le Treut YP, et al. Predictors of long-term survival after liver transplantation for metastatic endocrine tumors: an 85-case French multicentric report. Am J Transplant. 2008;8:1205–13.
Legmann P, et al. Pancreatic tumors: comparison of dual-phase helical CT and endoscopic sonography. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1998;170:1315–22.
Liszka L, et al. Discrepancies between two alternative staging systems (European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society 2006 and American Joint Committee on Cancer/Union for International Cancer Control 2010) of neuroendocrine neoplasms of the pancreas. A study of 50 cases. Pathol Res Pract. 2011;207:220–4.
Mertz H, Gautam S. The learning curve for EUS-guided FNA of pancreatic cancer. Gastrointest Endosc. 2004;59:33–7.
Metz DC, Jensen RT. Gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors: pancreatic endocrine tumors. Gastroenterology. 2008;135:1469–92.
Miederer M, Weber MM, Fottner C. Molecular imaging of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Gastroenterol Clin N Am. 2010;39:923–35.
Minter RM, Simeone DM. Contemporary management of nonfunctioning pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. J Gastrointest Surg. 2012;16:435–46.
Modlin IM, Cornelius E, Lawton GP. Use of an isotopic somatostatin receptor probe to image gut endocrine tumors. Arch Surg. 1995;130:367–73; discussion 373–364.
Modlin IM, et al. Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Lancet Oncol. 2008;9:61–72.
Moertel CG, Lefkopoulo M, Lipsitz S, Hahn RG, Klaassen D. Streptozocin-doxorubicin, streptozocin-fluorouracil or chlorozotocin in the treatment of advanced islet-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:519–23.
Muniraj T, Vignesh S, Shetty S, Thiruvengadam S, Aslanian HR. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Dis Mon. 2013;59:5–19.
Norton JA. Surgery for primary pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. J Gastrointest Surg. 2006;10:327–31.
Norton JA, et al. Morbidity and mortality of aggressive resection in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors. Arch Surg. 2003;138:859–66.
Norton JA, et al. Surgery increases survival in patients with gastrinoma. Ann Surg. 2006;244:410–9.
O’Grady HL, Conlon KC. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2008;34:324–32.
Oronsky B, Ma PC, Morgensztern D, Carter CA. Nothing but NET: a review of neuroendocrine tumors and carcinomas. Neoplasia (New York, NY). 2017;19:991–1002.
Pape UF, et al. Prognostic relevance of a novel TNM classification system for upper gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer. 2008;113:256–65.
Phan AT, Yao JC, Fogelman DR, Hess KR, Ng CS, Bullock SA, Malinowski P, Regan E, Kulke M. A prospective, multi-institutional phase II study of GW786034 (pazopanib) and depot octreotide (sandostatin LAR) in advanced low-grade neuroendocrine carcinoma (LGNEC). In: ASCO annual meeting, vol. 28, p. 4001. J Clin Oncol 2010).
Plockinger U, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of neuroendocrine gastrointestinal tumours. A consensus statement on behalf of the European Neuroendocrine Tumour Society (ENETS). Neuroendocrinology. 2004;80:394–424.
Raymond E, et al. Sunitinib malate for the treatment of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:501–13.
Rindi G, et al. TNM staging of foregut (neuro)endocrine tumors: a consensus proposal including a grading system. Virchows Arch. 2006;449:395–401.
Rosch T, et al. Localization of pancreatic endocrine tumors by endoscopic ultrasonography. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:1721–6.
Roy PK, et al. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Clinical presentation in 261 patients. Medicine (Baltimore). 2000;79:379–411.
Saadettin Kilickap HKM. Neuroendocrine tumours diagnosis and management. New York: Springer; 2015.
Sakurai A, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Endocr J. 2007;54:295–302.
Sarmiento JM, Que FG. Hepatic surgery for metastases from neuroendocrine tumors. Surg Oncol Clin N Am. 2003;12:231–42.
Scarpa A, et al. Pancreatic endocrine tumors: improved TNM staging and histopathological grading permit a clinically efficient prognostic stratification of patients. Mod Pathol. 2010;23:824–33.
Schillaci O, Corleto VD, Annibale B, Scopinaro F, Delle Fave G. Single photon emission computed tomography procedure improves accuracy of somatostatin receptor scintigraphy in gastro-entero pancreatic tumours. Ital J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1999;31(Suppl 2):S186–9.
Schott M, et al. Neuroendocrine neoplasms of the gastrointestinal tract. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2011;108:305–12.
Schottelius M, et al. First (18)F-labeled tracer suitable for routine clinical imaging of sst receptor-expressing tumors using positron emission tomography. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10:3593–606.
Strosberg J, Nasir A, Coppola D, Wick M, Kvols L. Correlation between grade and prognosis in metastatic gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Hum Pathol. 2009;40:1262–8.
Strosberg JR, et al. Prognostic validity of a novel American Joint Committee on Cancer Staging Classification for pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Oncol. 2011a;29:3044–9.
Strosberg JR, et al. First-line chemotherapy with capecitabine and temozolomide in patients with metastatic pancreatic endocrine carcinomas. Cancer. 2011b;117:268–75.
Thom AK, et al. Prospective study of the use of intraarterial secretin injection and portal venous sampling to localize duodenal gastrinomas. Surgery. 1992;112:1002–8; discussion 1008–1009.
Thomas-Marques L, et al. Prospective endoscopic ultrasonographic evaluation of the frequency of nonfunctioning pancreaticoduodenal endocrine tumors in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:266–73.
Thompson NW, Eckhauser FE. Malignant islet-cell tumors of the pancreas. World J Surg. 1984;8:940–51.
Thompson GB, van Heerden JA, Grant CS, Carney JA, Ilstrup DM. Islet cell carcinomas of the pancreas: a twenty-year experience. Surgery. 1988;104:1011–7.
Toumpanakis C, Meyer T, Caplin ME. Cytotoxic treatment including embolization/chemoembolization for neuroendocrine tumours. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;21:131–44.
Touzios JG, et al. Neuroendocrine hepatic metastases: does aggressive management improve survival? Ann Surg. 2005;241:776–83; discussion 783–775.
Triponez F, et al. Is surgery beneficial for MEN1 patients with small (< or = 2 cm), nonfunctioning pancreaticoduodenal endocrine tumor? An analysis of 65 patients from the GTE. World J Surg. 2006;30:654–62; discussion 663–654.
Vagefi PA, et al. Evolving patterns in the detection and outcomes of pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms: the Massachusetts General Hospital experience from 1977 to 2005. Arch Surg. 2007;142:347–54.
Van Hoe L, Gryspeerdt S, Marchal G, Baert AL, Mertens L. Helical CT for the preoperative localization of islet cell tumors of the pancreas: value of arterial and parenchymal phase images. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1995;165:1437–9.
Wamsteker EJ, Gauger PG, Thompson NW, Scheiman JM. EUS detection of pancreatic endocrine tumors in asymptomatic patients with type 1 multiple endocrine neoplasia. Gastrointest Endosc. 2003;58:531–5.
Wang SC, et al. Identification of unknown primary tumors in patients with neuroendocrine liver metastases. Arch Surg. 2010;145:276–80.
Wolf P, et al. Clinical presentation in insulinoma predicts histopathological tumour characteristics. Clin Endocrinol. 2015;83:67–71.
Yang RH, Chu YK. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: revelation of the gastrinoma triangle. Radiol Case Rep. 2015;10:827.
Yao JC, et al. Population-based study of islet cell carcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2007;14:3492–500.
Yao JC, et al. Daily oral everolimus activity in patients with metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors after failure of cytotoxic chemotherapy: a phase II trial. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28:69–76.
Yao JC, et al. Everolimus for advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:514–23.
Zatelli MC, et al. Chromogranin A as a marker of neuroendocrine neoplasia: an Italian Multicenter Study. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2007;14:473–82.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Muniraj, T., Aslanian, H.R. (2020). Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors. In: Pitchumoni, C., Dharmarajan, T. (eds) Geriatric Gastroenterology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90761-1_81-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90761-1_81-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-90761-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-90761-1
eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine